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YoY shift: Lean -
Year-over-year tone shift - average net-tone change across Risk Factors and MD&A vs the prior 10-K. This filing is -0.21pp more bearish than last year's.
Why YoY instead of absolute: the LM lexicon has ~6.6× more negative words than positive (legal/risk-disclosure language is heavy on hedging), so every 10-K reads bearish on raw tone. Year-over-year change strips that bias and surfaces the actual shift in management's framing.
Tone shift by section
The two components the gauge averages: how Risk Factors and MD&A each shifted in net tone versus last year's 10-K. The headline above is their average, so a green needle over a soft section just means the other section carried it.
Risk Factors
-0.06pp
Flat
Net-tone change vs last year's 10-K.
MD&A
-0.36pp
Lean -
Net-tone change vs last year's 10-K.
Per-snippet highlights
Sentence-level sentiment highlighting with category and subcategory filters is coming once the snippet-scoring pipeline lands. For now, dig into the actual section text on the Sections tab.
Language change vs prior 10-K
Risk Factors (Item 1A) - words with the biggest YoY frequency increase
Negative rising
limitations+6
negatively+4
investigation+4
defendants+4
complaint+3
Positive rising
effective+6
profitability+6
beautiful+5
able+1
successfully+1
Risk Factors (Item 1A)
18,465 words
Item 1A. Risk Factors
An investment in our stock involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the following information, together with the other information in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, before buying shares of our stock. If any of the following risks or uncertainties occur, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected and the trading price of our stock could decline.
Summary of Risk Factors
The following is a summary of the principal risks and uncertainties that could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations and make an investment in our stock speculative or risky. You should read this summary together with the more detailed description of each risk factor contained below.
Risks Related to Our Markets and Customers
• Competition in solar markets globally and across the solar value chain is intense and could remain that way for an extended period of time. The solar industry may experience periods of structural imbalance between global PV module supply and demand that result in periods of pricing volatility. If our competitors maintain module pricing at levels near or below their manufacturing costs, or are to operate at minimal or operating margins for sustained periods of time, or if global demand for PV modules decreases relative to installed production capacity, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be affected.
Language change vs prior 10-K
MD&A (Item 7) - words with the biggest YoY frequency increase
Negative rising
limitations+4
terminated+4
investigation+3
critical+2
breaches+2
Positive rising
effective+6
beautiful+4
improvements+1
achieve+1
greater+1
MD&A (Item 7)
11,682 words
Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations
The following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes thereto included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. In addition to historical financial information, the following discussion and analysis contains forward-looking statements that involve risks, uncertainties, and assumptions as described under the “Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” that appears earlier in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Our actual results could differ materially from those anticipated by these forward-looking statements as a result of many factors, including those discussed under Item 1A. “Risk Factors,” and elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. This discussion and analysis does not address certain items in respect of the year ended December 31, 2023. See Item 7. “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024 for comparative discussions of our results of operations and liquidity and capital resources for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023.
Executive Overview
We are America’s leading PV solar technology and manufacturing company. The only U.S.-headquartered company among the world’s largest solar manufacturers, First Solar is focused on competitively and reliably enabling power generation needs with our advanced, uniquely American thin film PV technology. Developed at R&D labs in California and Ohio, our technology provides a competitive, high-performance, and responsibly produced alternative to conventional crystalline silicon PV solar modules. Our PV solar modules are produced using a fully integrated, continuous process that does not rely on Chinese crystalline silicon supply chains.
• The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.
• The loss of any of our large customers, or the inability of our customers and counterparties to perform under their contracts with us, including through terminations by customers of any contract in part or in full, has reduced and, in the future, could significantly reduce our net sales and negatively impact our results of operations.
Risks Related to Our Operations, Manufacturing, and Technology
• We face intense competition from manufacturers of crystalline silicon solar modules; if global supply exceeds global demand, it could lead to a further reduction in the average selling price for PV solar modules, which could reduce our net sales and adversely affect our results of operations.
• Problems with product quality or performance may cause us to incur significant and/or unexpected contractual damages and/or warranty and related expenses, damage our market reputation, and prevent us from maintaining or increasing our market share.
• Our failure to further refine our technology and develop and introduce improved PV products, including as a result of delays in implementing planned advancements, could render our solar modules uncompetitive and reduce our net sales, profitability, and/or market share.
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• Several of our key raw materials and components, in particular CdTe, tellurium, products containing tellurium, and substrate glass, and manufacturing equipment are either single-sourced or sourced from a limited number of suppliers, and their failure to perform could cause manufacturing delays, especially as we expand or seek to expand our business, and/or impair our ability to deliver solar modules to customers in the required quality and quantities and at a price that is profitable to us.
• Our failure to effectively manage module manufacturing and related costs, including costs related to raw materials and logistics services, could render our solar modules uncompetitive and reduce our net sales, profitability, and/or market share.
• Our future success depends on our ability to effectively balance manufacturing production with market demand, effectively manage our cost per watt, and, when necessary, continue to build new manufacturing plants over time in response to market demand, all of which are subject to risks and uncertainties.
• We may be unable to generate sufficient cash flows or have access to the sources of external financing necessary to fund planned capital investments in manufacturing capacity and product development.
• Our failure to protect or successfully commercialize our intellectual property rights may undermine our competitive position, and litigation to protect our intellectual property rights or defendagainst third-party allegations of infringement may be costly.
Risks Related to Regulations
• We have received and expect to continue to receive certain financial benefits as a result of tax incentives enacted by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 and amended by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025. If these financial benefits vary significantly from our assumptions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.
• Existing regulations and policies, changes thereto, and new regulations and policies may present technical, regulatory, and economic barriers to the purchase and use of PV solar products, which may significantly reduce demand for our modules.
General Risk Factors
• Cybersecurity incidents or information or security breaches, or those of third parties with which we do business, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
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Risks Related to Our Markets and Customers
Competition in solar markets globally and across the solar value chain is intense and could remain that way for an extended period of time. The solar industry may experience periods of structural imbalance between global PV module supply and demand that result in periods of pricing volatility, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
In the aggregate, we believe manufacturers of solar cells and modules have significant installed production capacity, relative to global demand, and the ability for additional capacity expansion. For example, we estimate that in 2025 approximately 105 GW of capacity was added by solar module manufacturers, primarily in China. We believe the solar industry may from time to time experience periods of structural imbalance between supply and demand, and that excess capacity will continue to put pressure on pricing. Module average selling prices in many global markets have declined. However, recent module pricing in the United States, our primary market, has remained stable due, in part, to the rising demand for domestically manufactured modules as a result of the IRA, energy tax credit eligibility restrictions (including foreign-entity-related limitations) as amended by the OBBBA, and tariffs on modules imported into the United States. There may be additional pressure on global demand and average selling prices in the future resulting from fluctuating demand in certain major solar markets, such as China. If our competitors maintain module pricing at levels near or below their manufacturing costs, or are able to operate at minimal or negative operating margins for sustained periods of time, or if global demand for PV modules decreases relative to installed production capacity, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.
The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.
Although we believe that solar energy will experience widespread adoption in those applications where it competes economically with traditional forms of energy without any incentive programs, in certain markets our net sales and profits remain subject to variability based on the availability and size of government subsidies and economic incentives. Federal, state, and local governmental bodies in many countries have provided subsidies in the form of feed-in-tariff structures, rebates, tax incentives, and other incentives to end users, distributors, system integrators, and manufacturers of PV solar products. Many of these incentive programs expire, phase down over time, require renewal by the applicable authority, or may be amended. To the extent government incentive programs are reduced earlier than previously expected, are changed retroactively, or are not renewed, such changes have and could negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules, lead to a reduction in our net sales, and adversely impact our operating results.
Current regulatory policies, or any future changes or threatened changes to such policies, may subject us to significant risks, including the following:
• a reduction or removal of certain energy programs and initiatives and the incentives they provide may diminish the market for future solar energy off-take agreements, slow the retirement of aging fossil fuel plants, including the retirements of coal generation plants, and reduce the ability for solar project developers to compete for off-take agreements, which may reduce PV solar module sales;
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• any limitations on the value or availability to manufacturers or potential investors of tax incentives that benefit solar energy production, sales, or projects, such as the Section 45X advanced manufacturing production credit, ITC, and PTC, as seen in the accelerated termination of certain energy tax credits under the “One Big Beautiful Bill” the U.S. President signed into law on July 4, 2025, could result in reducing such manufacturers’ or investors’ economic returns and could cause a reduction in the availability of financing, thereby reducing demand for PV solar modules;
• any incentives contingent upon domestic production of modules, such as tax incentives set forth under the IRA, could limit our ability to sell modules manufactured in certain foreign jurisdictions, which may adversely impact our module average selling prices and could require us to record significant charges to earnings should we determine that the manufacturing facilities and equipment in such foreign jurisdictions are impaired; and
• any effort to overturn federal and state laws, regulations, or policies that are supportive of solar energy generation or that remove costs or other limitations on other types of electricity generation that compete with solar energy projects could negatively impact our ability to compete with traditional forms of electricity generation and materially and adversely affect our business.
Application of trade laws may also adversely impact, either directly or indirectly, our operating results; for example, by impacting our customers’ project costs, profitability, and their demand for our modules; or by impacting our own costs or disrupting our manufacturing or supply chains, and consequently negatively impacting demand and/or price levels for our solar modules, reducing our net sales, or affecting potential profitability of fulfilling customer contracts. We are therefore potentially subject to various risks, which include the following:
• any tariffs that reduce the profitability of contracts, whereby the cost of tariffs exceeds the amount able to be, or willing to be, absorbed by either us or the customer under the provisions of the contract and may lead to us or the customer cancelling such contract, potentially resulting in the reduction of future revenue, the loss of the contractual right to a termination payment from the customer, and potentially the required return of a previously received customer down payment;
• any reciprocal or other tariffs may place burdens on our customers’ supply chains exclusive of module import costs, including through increased costs of trackers, inverters, transformers, and other imported equipment, which are often heavily dependent on Chinese supply chains. These and other costs could result in an inability for certain projects to generate profitable returns, and may lead to the delay or abandonment of such projects, thereby reducing or removing demand for currently contracted PV module sales; and
• any reduction in our ability to profitably import modules from our international manufacturing locations as a result of tariffs or other trade laws could lead to us significantly reducing capacity utilization at certain international manufacturing facilities. Such underutilization may lead to potential impairment of certain international equipment and facilities and may also increase our selling costs and reduce our competitiveness in the market, thereby reducing demand for our modules.
In some instances, the application of trade laws is currently beneficial to us, and changes in their application could have an adverse impact. The overall impact of trade laws on our business depends on multiple factors, including their duration, their scope and potential expansion thereof, enforcement, retaliatory measures by impacted exporting countries, inflationary effects and broader macroeconomic responses, changes to consumer purchasing behavior, and the effectiveness of our responses in managing these impacts. Recent developments include the following:
• United States — IEEPA Tariffs . In 2025, the U.S. President imposed a series of tariffs on nearly all U.S. trading partners pursuant to the International Emergency Economic Powers Act of 1977 (“IEEPA”). As it pertains to the countries where we manufacture solar modules, IEEPA tariffs applied to Vietnam (20%), India (25%), and Malaysia (19%). In August 2025, the U.S. President had imposed an additional 25% tariff
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on India over its purchases of Russian oil, resulting in an overall rate of 50%. On February 20, 2026, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the IEEPA tariffs unlawful. President Trump responded immediately by revoking the IEEPA tariff actions and imposing new global tariffs pursuant to Section 122 of the Trade Act of 1974 (“Section 122”), which provides for tariffs up to 15% for a period of no more than 150 days. The additional, higher tariffs on imports from these countries has increased the costs of our solar modules manufactured in these countries with respect to our U.S. market. Further, such circumstances have and may continue to impact our ability to sell certain modules into the United States and therefore have and may continue to also impact the operational status of certain of our international manufacturing facilities. As a result, our operating results have and may continue to be adversely impacted by these tariffs.
• United States — Additional Tariffs on Certain Chinese Imports . The United States currently imposes tariffs on various articles imported from China, including tariffs of 50% on crystalline silicon solar cells and tariffs of 25% on modules, based on an investigation under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974. The U.S. President imposed an additional 10% tariff on all imports from China, related to the national security threat posed by China’s trade in fentanyl and other illegal narcotics and a 10% reciprocal tariff on China, effective until November 10, 2026, under IEEPA. On February 20, 2026, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the IEEPA tariffs unlawful, and President Trump immediately revoked the IEEPA tariff actions, including the additional tariffs on China, and replaced them with a new global tariff pursuant to Section 122. Our operating results could be adversely impacted by revocation of the IEEPA tariffs on China.
• United States — Port Fees on Certain Chinese Vessel Operators and Chinese Vessel Owners. On April 17, 2025, the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative published a notice of final action based on an investigation under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 into China’s targeting of the maritime, logistics, and shipbuilding sectors for dominance. The action imposes new port fees on Chinese vessel operators and/or Chinese vessel owners as well as on non-Chinese operators of Chinese-origin vessels beginning on October 14, 2025. The level of fees is on a sliding scale per net ton or, in the case of non-Chinese operators, the higher of a net ton or container-based fee. Effective November 10, 2025, however, the United States suspended implementation of such action for one year. Once implemented, such fees may impact our logistics services and consequently impact our profitability and results of operations.
• United States — Tariffs on Certain Foreign-imported Aluminum, Steel, Copper, Timber and Lumber. Effective June 4, 2025, the U.S. President increased tariffs on imported aluminum and steel articles under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (“Section 232”) from 25% to 50%. Effective August 1, 2025, the U.S. President imposed tariffs of 50% on copper under Section 232. Effective October 14, 2025, the U.S. President imposed tariffs of 10% on imported softwood timber and lumber products under Section 232. Such tariffs and policies, or any other U.S. or global trade remedies or other trade barriers, may directly or indirectly affect U.S. or global markets for solar energy and our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
• United States — Potential Tariffs on Processed Critical Minerals and Derivative Products, Polysilicon, Robotics and Industrial Machinery. On April 22, 2025, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce initiated an investigation to determine the effects on the national security of imports of processed critical minerals, as well as their derivative products, under Section 232; on July 1, 2025, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce initiated a Section 232 investigation to determine whether imports of polysilicon and its derivatives impair U.S. national security; and on September 2, 2025, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce initiated an investigation to determine the effects on the national security of imports of robotics and industrial machinery under Section 232. The scope of these investigations is potentially broad and may cover materials and equipment used in solar module manufacturing. These investigations may result in the imposition of tariffs or import restrictions, or may remove barriers on the imports of competitor products and materials, all of which could negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth, lead to a reduction in our net sales, or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.
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• United States — Antidumping and Countervailing Duties on Certain Imported Crystalline Silicon PV Cells and Modules. The United States currently imposes AD/CVDs on certain imported crystalline silicon PV cells and modules from China and Taiwan. Such AD/CVDs can change over time pursuant to annual administrative reviews conducted by the U.S. Department of Commerce (“USDOC”), and a decline in duty rates or USDOC failure to fully enforce U.S. AD/CVD laws could have an adverse impact on our operating results. In August 2023, the USDOC issued final affirmative circumvention rulings, finding that solar modules completed in Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam using parts and components produced in China circumvent the pre-existing AD/CVD orders on China. Such duties apply to circumventing imports on or after June 6, 2024, as well as any circumventing imports prior to that date that were not used or installed on or before December 3, 2024. Our operating results could be adversely impacted if the USDOC and other U.S. government agencies do not enforce the affirmative circumvention rulings as expected or if pending litigationchallenges result in a modification of the rulings. Conversely, effective enforcement could positively impact our operating results.
• United States — Antidumping and Countervailing Duties on Certain Traded Solar Products. In April 2024, the American Alliance for Solar Manufacturing Trade Committee, which includes First Solar, filed a set of AD/CVD petitions with the USDOC and the U.S. International Trade Commission (“USITC”) to impose duties on certain unfairly traded solar products from Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. On April 21, 2025, the USDOC announced final determinations in the AD/CVD investigations. Final AD/CVD rates ranged from de minimis to over 3,400%, depending on the particular foreign producer. On June 9, 2025, the USITC notified USDOC of its final affirmative determinations in the AD/CVD investigations. AD/CVD orders, including the assessment of AD/CVDs and suspension of liquidation of such products, were issued on June 9, 2025. On July 17, 2025, the Alliance for American Solar Manufacturing and Trade filed another set of AD/CVD petitions with the USDOC and the USITC to impose duties on unfairly traded crystalline silicon solar products from India, Indonesia, and Laos. In August 2025, the USITC issued affirmative preliminary determinations. The USDOC is expected to issue its preliminary countervailing duty determinations in February 2026 and preliminary antidumping duty determinations in April 2026.
• India — Domestic and Foreign Imports. The Approved List of Models and Manufacturers (“ALMM”) was introduced in 2021 as a non-tariff barrier to incentivize domestic manufacturing of PV modules by approving the list of models and manufacturers who can participate in certain solar development projects. The ALMM is approved by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (“MNRE”), and any modifications to the ALMM and its application may affect future investments in solar module manufacturing in India. In April 2024, the government of India reimposed the ALMM, thereby requiring solar project developers to procure qualifying modules from companies on the list, which includes our Indian manufacturing facility. Also in April 2024, the ALMM was amended to include specific minimum conversion efficiency thresholds for CdTe solar technologies starting at 18% for solar lighting, 18.5% for rooftop applications, and 19% for utility-scale applications. In December 2024, the ALMM was amended to require nearly all solar development projects to use PV modules that contain domestically manufactured solar cells, which is expected to be effective for such projects completed on or after June 2026; in August 2025, the relevant list of qualifying entities was released, which included First Solar as an approved manufacturer. In September 2025, the MNRE released draft amendments that would require nearly all solar development projects to use PV modules that contain domestically manufactured wafers, which is expected to be effective for such projects completed on or after June 2028; the proposed list was released at that time, which included First Solar as an approved manufacturer. In November 2025, the MNRE released a draft proposal that would increase the minimum efficiency of PV modules for manufacturers to be included in the ALMM beginning in 2027. If enacted, the proposal would negatively impact our ability to sell modules within the Indian market. Our operating results could also be adversely impacted if the ALMM requirements are significantly relaxed to allow modules, solar cells, or certain other key module components to be imported from other countries.
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• India — Import Duty Tariffs. In April 2022, the Indian government began imposing import duty tariffs of 40% on solar modules and 25% on solar cells. In connection with such April 2022 tariffs, the Indian government also implemented a regulation mandating that any solar project with federal utility, state utility, or commercial and industrial off-takers that interconnects through government owned transmission lines only use solar modules from manufacturers included in the ALMM, and a requirement that all federal procurement of solar modules be only from cells and modules produced domestically. However, in February 2025, the Indian government began imposing import duty tariffs of 20% each on solar modules and cells and levied additional tax on certain commercial agricultural production, which included a tax of 20% on solar modules and 7.5% on solar cells. Therefore, the aggregate impact on the import of solar modules and cells is 40% and 27.5%, respectively.
These examples show that established markets for PV solar development face uncertainties arising from policy, regulatory, and governmental actions. While the expected potential of the markets we are targeting is significant, policy promulgation and market development are especially vulnerable to governmental inertia, political instability, changing government policy and priorities, the imposition or lowering of trade remedies and other trade barriers, geopolitical risk, fossil fuel subsidization, potentially stringent localization requirements, and limited available infrastructure. Any negative impacts from changes in policy, regulatory, and governmental actions could negatively affect our business, reduce our net sales, profitability and/or market share, and consequently affect our results of operations, prospects, and financial condition.
The loss of any of our large customers, or the inability of our customers and counterparties to perform under their contracts with us, including through terminations by customers of any contract in part or in full, has reduced and, in the future, could significantly reduce our net sales and negatively impact our results of operations.
Our customers include developers and operators of systems, utilities, independent power producers, commercial and industrial companies, and other system owners, who may experience intense competition at the system level, thereby constraining the ability for such customers to sustain meaningful and consistent profitability. The loss of any of our large customers, their inability to perform under their contracts, or their default in payment has reduced and, in the future, could significantly reduce our net sales and/or adversely impact our operating results. While our contracts with customers typically have certain firm purchase commitments and may require our customers to make payments to us if a contract is terminated in certain circumstances, those contract terms have in the past and may in the future be breached by our customers or subject to renegotiation. These contract breaches and renegotiations have and may continue to reduce the volume of modules sold under the relevant contracts, postpone delivery schedules, and/or otherwise decrease the revenue we realize under these contracts and, correspondingly, negatively impact, potentially significantly, our results of operations. This includes cases where our ability to subsequently resell solar modules sold under terminated and/or renegotiated contracts may be constrained by the project lead times of our customers, their required module specifications, or other factors. For example, on September 30, 2025, First Solar filed a complaint in the Supreme Court of the State of New York asserting that BP Solar Holding LLC and its affiliate Lightsource Renewable Energy Trading, LLC breached their contractual obligations with First Solar, having entered into various master supply agreements to purchase solar modules from First Solar and then refusing to pay the amounts owed under the purchase orders. See Part I Item 3. “Legal Proceedings” for additional information. Additionally, although we require some form of payment security from our customers, such as cash deposits, parent guarantees, bank guarantees, surety bonds, or commercial letters of credit, in the event the providers of such payment security fail to perform their obligations, our operating results could be adversely impacted.
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An increase in interest rates or tightening of the supply of capital in the global financial markets (including a reduction in total tax equity availability) could make it difficult for customers to finance the cost of a PV solar power system and could reduce the demand for our modules and/or lead to a reduction in the average selling price for our modules.
Many of our customers depend on debt and/or equity financing to fund the initial capital expenditure required to develop, build, and/or purchase a PV solar power system. As a result, an increase in interest rates, or a reduction in the supply of project debt financing or tax equity investments, could reduce the number of solar projects that receive financing or otherwise make it difficult for our customers to secure the financing necessary to develop, build, purchase, or install a PV solar power system on favorable terms, or at all, and thus lower demand for our solar modules, which could limit our growth or reduce our net sales. For additional information, see the Risk Factor entitled, “The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.” In addition, we believe that a significant percentage of our customers install systems as an investment, funding the initial capital expenditure through a combination of equity and debt. An increase in interest rates could lower an investor’s return on investment in a system, increase equity return requirements, or make alternative investments more attractive relative to PV solar power systems and, in each case, could cause these customers to seek alternative investments.
We may be unable to execute our long-term strategic plans, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or results of operations.
We face numerous difficulties in executing on our long-term strategic plans, particularly in new foreign jurisdictions, including the following:
• difficulty in competing against companies who may have greater financial resources and/or a more effective or established localized business presence and/or an ability to operate with minimal or negative operating margins for sustained periods of time;
• difficulty in competing successfully with other technologies, such as crystalline silicon, hybrid perovskites, tandem solar cells, or other thin films;
• difficulty in accurately prioritizing geographic markets that we can most effectively and profitably serve with our solar module offerings, including miscalculations in overestimating or underestimating addressable market demand;
• adverse public policies in countries we operate in and/or are pursuing, including local content requirements, the imposition of trade remedies, the removal of trade barriers, the imposition of tariffs, or capital investment requirements;
• business climates, such as that in China, that may have the effect of putting foreign companies at a disadvantage relative to domestic companies;
• unstable or adverse economic, social, and/or operating environments, including social unrest, currency, inflation, and interest rate uncertainties;
• the possibility of applying an ineffective commercial approach to targeted markets, including product offerings that may not meet market needs;
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• difficulty in generating sufficient sales volumes at economically sustainable profitability levels;
• difficulty in timely identifying, attracting, training, and retaining qualified sales, technical, and other talent;
• difficulty in realizing the potential benefits of strategic acquisitions and investments;
• difficulty in maintaining proper controls and procedures as we expand our business operations in terms of geographical reach, including transitioning certain business functions to low-cost geographies, with any material control failure potentially leading to reputational damage and loss of confidence in our financial reporting;
• difficulty in competing successfully for market share in overall solar markets as a result of the success of companies participating in other solar segments in which we do not have significant historical experience, such as residential;
• difficulty in establishing and implementing a commercial and operational approach adequate to address the specific needs of the markets we are pursuing;
• difficulty in identifying effective local partners and developing any necessary partnerships with local businesses on commercially acceptable terms; and
• difficulty in balancing market demand and manufacturing production in an efficient and timely manner, potentially causing our manufacturing capacity to be constrained in some future periods or over-supplied in others.
Refer also to the Risk Factors entitled, “Our substantial international operations subject us to a number of risks, including unfavorable political, regulatory, labor, and tax conditions in the United States and/or foreign countries,” “The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results,” and “We may be unable to generate sufficient cash flows or have access to the sources of external financing necessary to fund planned capital investments in manufacturing capacity and product development.”
Risks Related to Our Operations, Manufacturing, and Technology
We face intense competition from manufacturers of crystalline silicon solar modules; if global supply exceeds global demand, it could lead to a further reduction in the average selling price for PV solar modules , which could reduce our net sales and adversely affect our results of operations.
The solar and renewable energy industries are highly competitive and are continually evolving as participants strive to distinguish themselves within their markets and compete with the larger electric power industry. Within the global PV solar industry, we face intense competition from crystalline silicon module manufacturers. Existing or future module manufacturers might be acquired by larger companies with significant capital resources, thereby further intensifying competition with us. In addition, the introduction of a low-cost disruptive technology could adversely affect our ability to compete, which could reduce our net sales and adversely affect our results of operations.
We expect to compete with future entrants into the PV solar industry and existing market participants that offer new or differentiated technological solutions. For example, while conventional solar modules are monofacial, meaning their ability to produce energy is a function of direct and diffuse irradiance on their front side, most module
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manufacturers offer bifacial modules that also capture diffuse irradiance on the back side of a module. Such technology can improve the overall energy production of a module relative to nameplate power when applied in certain applications, which could potentially lower the overall LCOE of a system when compared to systems using conventional solar modules, including the modules we currently produce. Additionally, certain module manufacturers have introduced n-type mono-crystalline modules, such as tunnel oxide passivated contact (“TOPCon”) modules, which may provide certain improvements to module efficiency, temperature coefficient, and bifacial performance, and claim to provide certain degradationadvantages compared to other mono-crystalline modules. Finally, many of our competitors are promoting modules with larger overall area based on the use of larger silicon wafers. While the transition to such larger wafers would increase nameplate power, we believe the associated production cost would not improve significantly.
Even if demand for solar modules continues to grow, the rapid manufacturing capacity expansion undertaken by many module manufacturers in China and certain parts of Southeast Asia, particularly manufacturers of crystalline silicon wafers, cells, and modules, has created and may continue to cause periods of structural imbalances between supply and demand. For additional information, see the Risk Factor entitled, “Competition in solar markets globally and across the solar value chain is intense and could remain that way for an extended period of time. The solar industry may experience periods of structural imbalance between global PV module supply and demand that result in periods of pricing volatility, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.” In addition, we believe any significant decrease in the cost of silicon feedstock or polysilicon would reduce the manufacturing cost of crystalline silicon modules and lead to further pricing pressure for solar modules and potentially an oversupply of solar modules.
Our competitors have decided, and in the future could decide, to reduce their sales prices in response to competition, even below their manufacturing costs, in order to generate sales, and may do so for a sustained period. Certain competitors, including many in China, may have direct or indirect access to sovereign capital or other forms of state support, which could enable such competitors to operate at minimal or negative operating margins for sustained periods of time. As a result, we may be unable to sell our solar modules at attractive prices, or for a profit, during any period of excess supply of solar modules, which would reduce our net sales and adversely affect our results of operations. Additionally, we may decide to lower our average selling prices to customers in certain markets in response to competition, which could also reduce our net sales and adversely affect our results of operations.
Problems with product quality or performance may cause us to incur significant and/or unexpected contractual damages and/or warranty and related expenses, damage our market reputation, and prevent us from maintaining or increasing our market share.
We perform a variety of module quality and life tests under different environmental conditions upon which we base our assessments of future module performance over the duration of the warranty. However, if our thin film solar modules perform below expectations, we could experience significant warranty and related expenses, damage to our market reputation, and erosion of our market share. With respect to our modules, we provide a limited warranty covering defects in materials and workmanship under normal use and service conditions for up to 12.5 years. We also typically warrant that modules installed in accordance with agreed-upon specifications will produce at least 98 % of their labeled power output rating during the first year, with the warranty coverage reducing by a degradation factor every year thereafter throughout the limited power output warranty period of up to 30 years. Among other things, our solar module warranty also covers the resulting power output loss from cell cracking.
We have identified manufacturing issues affecting certain Series 7 modules manufactured in 2023 and 2024 that may cause the modules to experience premature power loss once installed in the field. We currently believe the primary causes of the issues have been identified and we have taken actions to address such issues. The ultimate loss we will incur for these manufacturing issues will depend on the extent of the premature power loss that is experienced in relation to the obligations under our limited product warranties, as well as any additional commitments we may make to remediate the affected modules. Based on currently available information, various settlement agreements with customers, and certain assumptions and estimates, we believe a reasonable estimate of
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the aggregate remaining losses related to these manufacturing issues will range from approximately $ 35 million to $ 75 million. Within that range, we recorded a specific warranty liability of $ 50 million as of December 31, 2025, which represents our best estimate of expected future losses related to the identified manufacturing issues. If any of our estimates or assumptions related to the above referenced manufacturing issues are not accurate, we may be required to accrue additional expenses, which could adversely impact our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows.
If any of the assumptions used in estimating our module warranties prove incorrect, we may also be required to accrue additional expenses, which could adversely impact our financial position, operating results, and cash flows. Although we have taken significant precautions to avoid future manufacturing issues from occurring, any manufacturing issues, including any additional commitments made by us to take remediation actions in respect of affected modules beyond the stated remedies in our warranties, could also adversely impact our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows.
Although our module performance warranties extend for up to 30 years, our oldest solar modules manufactured during the qualification of our pilot production line have only been in use since 2001. Accordingly, our warranties are based on a variety of quality and life tests that enable predictions of durability and future performance. These predictions, however, could prove to be materially different from the actual performance during the warranty period, causing us to incur substantial expense to repair or replace defective solar modules or provide financial remuneration in the future. For example, our solar modules could suffer various failures, including breakage, delamination, corrosion, or performance degradation in excess of expectations, and our manufacturing operations or supply chain could be subject to material or process variations that could cause affected modules to fail or underperform compared to our expectations. These risks could be amplified as we implement design and process changes in connection with our efforts to improve our products and module wattage as part of our long-term strategic plans. In addition, if we increase the number of installations in extreme climates, we may experience increased failure rates due to deployment into such field conditions. Any widespread product failures may damage our market reputation, cause our net sales to decline, require us to repair or replace the defective modules or provide financial remuneration, and result in us taking voluntary remedial measures beyond those required by our standard warranty terms to enhance customer satisfaction, which could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows.
In resolving claims under both the limited defect and power output warranties, we typically have the option of either repairing or replacing the covered modules or, under the limited power output warranty, providing additional modules to remedy the power shortfall or making certain cash payments; however, historical versions of our module warranty did not provide a refund remedy. Consequently, we may be obligated to repair or replace the covered modules under such historical programs. As our manufacturing process may change from time-to-time in accordance with our technology roadmap, we may elect to stop production of older versions of our modules that would constitute compatible replacement modules. In some jurisdictions, our inability to provide compatible replacement modules could potentially expose us to liabilities beyond the limitations of our module warranties, which could adversely impact our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows.
In addition to our limited solar module warranties described above, for PV solar power systems we have constructed for customers in prior periods, we have provided limited warranties for defects in engineering design, installation, and balance of systems (“BoS”) part workmanship for a period of one to two years following the substantial completion of a system or a block within the system. BoS parts represent mounting, electrical, and other parts used in PV solar power systems. In resolving claims under such BoS warranties, we have the option of remedying the defect through repair or replacement. As with our modules, these warranties are based on a variety of quality and life tests that enable predictions of durability and future performance. Any underperformance or failures in BoS equipment beyond our expectations may also adversely impact our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows.
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In addition, our contracts with customers may include provisions with particular product specifications, minimum wattage requirements, and specified delivery schedules. These contracts may be terminated, or we may incur significant liquidateddamages or other damages, if we fail to perform our contractual obligations. In addition, our costs to perform under these contracts may exceed our estimates, which could adversely impact our profitability. Any failures to comply with our contracts for the sale of our modules could adversely impact our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows.
Our failure to further refine our technology and develop and introduce improved PV products, including as a result of delays in implementing planned advancements, could render our solar modules uncompetitive and reduce our net sales, profitability, and/or market share.
We need to continue to invest significant financial resources in R&D to further improve the energy yield of our modules and otherwise keep pace with technological advances in the solar industry. However, R&D activities are inherently uncertain, and we could encounter difficulties in commercializing our research results. We seek to continuously improve our products and processes, including, for example, certain planned improvements to our CdTe module technology and manufacturing capabilities, and the resulting changes carry potential risks in the form of delays, performance, additional costs, or other unintended contingencies. For example, we commenced a limited commercial production run of modules employing our CuRe technology in late 2024, and beginning in the first quarter of 2026, we intend to permanently convert one of our Ohio facilities to CuRe, followed by a phased replication of the technology across certain manufacturing facilities within our fleet. Our CuRe program is intended to improve our current semiconductor structure by replacing copper with certain other elements that are expected to enhance module performance by improving its bifaciality characteristics, improving its temperature coefficient, and improving its warranted degradation. These technology attributes must be proven to be effective in real-world operating conditions. We may encounter unanticipatedchallenges as we implement design and process changes in connection with the CuRe program and other technology improvements.
We may expand our portfolio of offerings to include solutions that build upon our core competencies but for which we have not had significant historical experience, including variations in our traditional product offerings or other offerings related to certain markets. There can be no guarantee that our significant R&D expenditures will produce corresponding benefits. Other companies are developing a variety of competing PV technologies, including advanced p-type and n-type crystalline silicon cells, and new emerging technologies such as hybrid perovskites, tandem solar cells, or other thin films, which could result in solar modules that prove to be more cost-effective or have better performance than our solar modules. If we are unable to achieve the necessary technology improvements to remain competitive, our overall growth and financial performance may be limited relative to our competitors and our operating results could be adversely impacted.
We often forward price our products in anticipation of future technology improvements. Furthermore, certain of our contracts with customers may include transaction price adjustments associated with future module technology improvements, including enhancements to certain energy related attributes. Accordingly, our operating results could be adversely affected by (i) an inability to further refine our technology and execute our module technology roadmap, (ii) changes to the expected timing of such improvements being incorporated into our manufacturing process, and/or (iii) changes to expected and/or actual manufacturing timelines, especially as a result of key raw material sourcing.
Some of our manufacturing equipment is customized and sole sourced. If our manufacturing equipment fails or if our equipment suppliers fail to perform under their contracts, we could experience production disruptions and be unable to satisfy our contractual requirements.
Some of our manufacturing equipment is customized to our production lines based on designs or specifications that we provide to equipment manufacturers, which then undertake a specialized process to manufacture the custom equipment. As a result, the equipment is not readily available from multiple vendors and would be difficult to repair or replace if it were to become delayed, damaged, or stop working. If any piece of equipment fails, production along
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the entire production line could be interrupted. In addition, the failure of our equipment manufacturers to supply equipment in a timely manner or on commercially reasonable terms could delay our expansion or conversion plans, otherwise disrupt our production schedule, and/or increase our manufacturing costs, all of which would adversely impact our operating results.
Several of our key raw materials and components are either single-sourced or sourced from a limited number of suppliers, and their failure to perform could cause manufacturing delays and impair our ability to deliver solar modules to customers in the required quality and quantities and at a price that is profitable to us.
Our failure to obtain raw materials and components that meet our quality, quantity, and cost requirements in a timely manner could interrupt or impair our ability to manufacture our solar modules, or increase our manufacturing costs. Several of our key raw materials and components, in particular CdTe, tellurium, products containing tellurium, substrate glass, and manufacturing equipment are either single-sourced or sourced from a limited number of suppliers. As a result, the failure of any of our suppliers to perform could disrupt our supply chain and adversely impact our operations. In addition, some of our suppliers are smaller companies that may be unable to supply our increasing demand for raw materials and components as we expand or seek to expand our business. We may be unable to identify new suppliers or qualify their products for use on our production lines in a timely manner and on commercially reasonable terms. A constraint on our production may result in our inability to meet our capacity plans and/or our obligations under our customer contracts, which would have an adverse impact on our business. Additionally, reductions in our production volume may put pressure on suppliers, resulting in increased material and component costs.
A disruption in our supply chain for CdTe, tellurium, products containing tellurium, or other key raw materials, or equipment could interrupt or impair our ability to manufacture solar modules and could adversely impact our profitability and long-term growth prospects.
A key raw material used in our module production process is a CdTe compound. Tellurium, one of the main components of CdTe, is mainly produced as a by-product of copper refining, and therefore, its supply is largely dependent upon demand for copper. If our competitors begin to use or increase their demand for tellurium, our requirements for tellurium increase, new applications for tellurium emerge, or adverse trade laws or policies restrict our ability to obtain tellurium from foreign vendors or make doing so cost prohibitive, the supply of tellurium, products containing tellurium, and related CdTe compounds could be reduced and prices could increase. For example, in early February 2025, China announced that it would tighten export controls for five key minerals, including products containing tellurium. As mentioned above, tellurium is one of the main components of our CdTe module production process. Although tellurium and products containing tellurium are sourced globally, China is a major global producer of tellurium and products containing tellurium. Exporters of tellurium and related products are generally required to obtain a license from the Chinese Ministry of Commerce, which may be difficult, costly, and time-consuming, and our suppliers may not be successful in obtaining necessary export licenses in a timely manner or at all. Challenges in obtaining required export licenses may disrupt certain aspects of our supply chain for tellurium and products containing tellurium, which could result in raw material cost increases and/or disrupted production timelines. A constraint on our production may result in our inability to (i) meet our capacity plans, (ii) meet obligations under our customer contracts, and/or (iii) realize transaction price adjustments associated with future module technology improvements, which could adversely impact our profitability and long-term growth objectives. See Item 7. “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Certain Trends and Uncertainties” for additional information regarding China’s export controls.
Furthermore, our supply chain could be limited if any of our current or future suppliers fail to perform or are unable to acquire an adequate supply in a timely manner or at commercially reasonable prices. If our current or future suppliers cannot obtain sufficient raw materials or key equipment, they could substantially increase prices or be unable to perform under their contracts. Additionally, we may also be unable to effectively manage fluctuations in the availability and cost of logistics services associated with the procurement of raw materials or equipment used in our manufacturing process. If we are unable to pass such cost increases to our customers, a substantial increase in
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prices or any limitations or disruptions in our supply chain could adversely impact our profitability and long-term growth objectives.
Our failure to effectively manage module manufacturing and related costs, including costs related to raw materials and logistics services, could render our solar modules uncompetitive and reduce our net sales, profitability, and/or market share.
Certain of our key raw material purchase contracts include variable pricing terms, which are driven by underlying indices for certain commodities, including aluminum, steel, and natural gas, among others. Fluctuations in such underlying commodity indices may increase our raw material costs. For example, in February 2025, the U.S. President announced an additional 10% tariff on all imports from China, which is related to the national security threat posed by China’s trade in fentanyl and other illegal narcotics. For additional information about global tariffs and trade developments, see the Risk Factor entitled, “The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.”
Additionally, an increase in price levels generally, such as inflation related to the cost of raw materials, key manufacturing equipment, labor, and logistics services, could adversely impact our profitability. From time to time, we may utilize derivative hedging instruments to mitigate price changes related to our raw materials or key manufacturing equipment. Our profitability could be adversely impacted if we are unable to effectively hedge such prices or pass these cost increases through to our customers. We often forward price our products in anticipation of future cost reductions, and thus, an inability to execute our cost reduction roadmap could adversely affect our operating results.
Our future success depends on our ability to effectively balance manufacturing production with market demand, effectively manage our cost per watt, and, when necessary, continue to build new manufacturing plants over time in response to market demand, all of which are subject to risks and uncertainties.
Our future success depends on our ability to effectively balance manufacturing production with market demand, effectively manage our cost per watt, and increase our manufacturing capacity in a cost-effective and efficient manner. If we cannot do so, we may incur damages under our contracts with our customers or be unable to decrease our cost per watt, maintain our competitive position, sustain profitability, expand our business, or create long-term shareholder value. Our ability to effectively manage our cost per watt or successfully expand production capacity is subject to significant risks and uncertainties, including the following:
• failure to reduce manufacturing material, labor, or overhead costs;
• an inability to increase production throughput or the average power output per module, or minimize manufacturing yield losses;
• failure to effectively manage the availability and cost of logistics services associated with the procurement of raw materials or equipment used in our manufacturing process and the shipping, handling, storage, and distribution of our modules;
• delays and cost overruns as a result of a number of factors, many of which may be beyond our control, such as our inability to secure economical contracts with equipment vendors;
• our custom-built equipment taking longer and costing more to manufacture than expected and not operating as designed;
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• delays or denial of required approvals by relevant government authorities;
• an inability to hire qualified staff;
• capital expenditures exceeding our initial estimates with respect to expanding and building our manufacturing and R&D facilities;
• difficulty in balancing market demand and manufacturing production in an efficient and timely manner, potentially causing our manufacturing capacity to be constrained in some future periods or over-supplied in others; and
• incurring manufacturing asset write-downs, write-offs, and other charges and costs, which may be significant, during those periods in which we idle, slow down, shut down, or otherwise adjust our manufacturing capacity.
If there is a delay or disruption in the construction or expansion of our manufacturing facilities, we may incur costs due to the postponed production generated by these facilities.
We may be unable to generate sufficient cash flows or have access to the sources of external financing necessary to fund planned capital investments in manufacturing capacity and product development.
Our business and our future plans for expansion are capital-intensive, and we anticipate that our operating and capital expenditure requirements may increase. To develop new products, support future growth, and maintain product quality, we may need to make significant capital investments in manufacturing technology, facilities and capital equipment, and R&D. Consequently, we may seek to raise additional funds through the issuance of equity, equity-related, or debt securities, through obtaining credit from financial institutions to fund, together with our traditional sources of liquidity, the costs of developing and manufacturing our current or future products, or through the sale of tax credits. We cannot be certain that we will be able to generate sufficient cash flows, or that additional funds will be available to us on favorable terms when required, or at all. If we cannot fund the required investments from our operating cash flows or raise additional funds when we need them, we may be unable to fully execute our business plan and our financial condition, results of operations, and business prospects could be materially and adversely affected.
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If our estimates regarding the future costs of collecting and recycling CdTe solar modules covered by our solar module collection and recycling program are incorrect, we could be required to accrue additional expenses and face a significant unplanned cash burden.
As necessary, we fund any incremental amounts for our estimated collection and recycling obligations on an annual basis based on the estimated costs of collecting and recycling covered modules, estimated rates of return on our restricted marketable securities, and an estimated solar module life of 25 years less amounts already funded in prior years. We estimate the cost of our collection and recycling obligations based on the present value of the expected future cost of collecting and recycling the solar modules, which includes estimates for the cost of packaging materials; the cost of freight from the solar module installation sites to a recycling center; material, labor, and capital costs; by-product credits for certain materials recovered during the recycling process; the estimated useful lives of modules covered by the program; and the number of modules expected to be recycled. We base these estimates on our experience collecting and recycling solar modules and certain assumptions regarding costs at the time the solar modules will be collected and recycled. If our estimates prove incorrect, we could be required to accrue additional expenses and could also face a significant unplanned cash burden at the time we realize our estimates are incorrect or end users return their modules, which could adversely affect our operating results. Participating end users can return their modules covered under the collection and recycling program at any time. As a result, we could be required to collect and recycle covered CdTe solar modules earlier than we expect.
Our failure to protect or successfully commercialize our intellectual property rights may undermine our competitive position, and litigation to protect our intellectual property rights or defendagainst third-party allegations of infringement may be costly.
Protection of our proprietary processes, methods, and other technology is critical to our business. Failure to protect and monitor the use of our existing intellectual property rights or to successfully commercialize future intellectual property rights could result in the loss of valuable technologies. We rely primarily on patents, trademarks, trade secrets, copyrights, and contractual restrictions to protect our intellectual property. We regularly file patent applications to protect certain inventions arising from our R&D and are currently pursuing such patent applications in various countries in accordance with our strategy for intellectual property. Our existing patents and future patents could be challenged, invalidated, circumvented, or rendered unenforceable. Our pending patent applications may not result in issued patents, or if patents are issued to us, such patents may not be sufficient to provide meaningful protection against competitors or against competitive technologies.
We also rely on unpatented proprietary manufacturing expertise, continuing technological innovation, and other trade secrets to develop and maintain our competitive position. Although we generally enter into confidentiality agreements with our associates and third parties to protect our intellectual property, such confidentiality agreements are limited in duration and could be breached and may not provide meaningful protection for our trade secrets or proprietary manufacturing expertise. Adequate remedies may not be available in the event of unauthorized use or disclosure of our trade secrets and manufacturing expertise. In addition, others may obtain knowledge of our trade secrets through independent development or legal means. The failure of our patents or confidentiality agreements to protect our processes, equipment, technology, trade secrets, and proprietary manufacturing expertise, methods, and compounds could have a material adverse effect on our business. In addition, effective patent, trademark, copyright, and trade secret protection may be unavailable or limited in some foreign countries, especially any developing countries into which we may expand our operations. In some countries, we have not applied for patent, trademark, or copyright protection.
Third parties may infringe or misappropriate our proprietary technologies or other intellectual property rights, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and operating results. Policing unauthorized use of proprietary technology can be difficult and expensive. Additionally, litigation may be necessary to enforce our intellectual property rights, protect our trade secrets, or determine the validity and scope of the proprietary rights of others. For example, on February 25, 2025, we filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware against JinkoSolar and its related entities alleginginfringement of certain of our U.S. TOPCon patents. On April 15, 2025, Mundra, whose parent corporation is Adani Green Technology Limited,
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filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware seeking a judgment declaring that it has not infringed two of our U.S. TOPCon patents. On May 9, 2025, we filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware against Canadian Solar and its related entities alleginginfringement of certain of our U.S. TOPCon patents. Further, on February 24, 2026, we filed a petition with the USITC asserting that entities affiliated with Axitec Solar, Canadian Solar, JA Solar, JinkoSolar, Mundra, Philadelphia Solar, Hanwha QCells, Runergy, Trina Solar, and VSUN directly and indirectly infringe a First Solar patent through the importation and sale of certain TOPCon solar products. We cannot ensure that the outcome of such litigation will be in our favor, and such litigation may be costly and may divert management attention and other resources away from our business. An adverse determination in any such litigation or the related ex parte reexaminations may impair our intellectual property rights and may harm our business, prospects, and reputation. In addition, we have no insurance coverage against such litigation costs and would have to bear all costs arising from such litigation to the extent we are unable to recover them from other parties.
If any future production lines are not built in line with committed schedules, it may adversely affect our future growth plans. If any future production lines do not achieve operating metrics similar to our existing production lines, our solar modules could perform below expectations and cause us to lose customers.
If we are unable to systematically replicate our production lines over time and achieve operating metrics similar to our existing production lines, our manufacturing capacity could be substantially constrained, our manufacturing costs per watt could increase, our growth could be limited, and we may be in breach of our contracts with customers for failure to deliver modules. Such factors may result in lower net sales, and/or lower net income than we anticipate. Future production lines could produce solar modules that have lower conversion efficiencies, higher failure rates, and/or higher rates of degradation than solar modules from our existing production lines, and we could be unable to determine the cause of the lower operating metrics or develop and implement solutions to improve performance.
We are in the process of expanding our domestic manufacturing capacity by approximately 4 GW including the construction of our sixth U.S. manufacturing facility to onshore final production processes for modules initiated by our international fleet, which is expected to commence operations in the second half of 2026. If we cannot successfully execute on our current capacity expansion plans, we may incur significant costs in excess of our expected investment for these new facilities. If we are not able to effectively manage current or future expansion activities or realize their anticipated benefits, it may adversely impact our results of operations.
Our substantial international operations subject us to a number of risks, including unfavorable political, regulatory, labor, and tax conditions in the United States and/or foreign countries.
We have significant manufacturing, sales, and marketing operations both within and outside the United States and expect to continue to expand our operations worldwide. Our global business requires us to respond to rapid changes in market conditions worldwide. Our overall success depends, in part, on our ability to succeed in differing legal, regulatory, economic, social, and political conditions. For example, in response to market conditions and an unfavorable policy environment in Europe, we have decided to scale down our footprint in Europe and to focus our business development efforts in the United States and India. We may not be able to timely develop and implement policies and strategies that will be effective in each location where we do business. Risks inherent to international operations include, but are not limited to, the following:
• difficulty in enforcing agreements in foreign legal systems;
• varying degrees of protection afforded to foreign investments in the countries in which we operate and irregular interpretations and enforcement of laws and regulations in such jurisdictions;
• foreign countries may impose additional income and withholding taxes or otherwise tax our foreign operations, impose tariffs, or adopt other controls or restrictions on foreign trade and investment, including currency exchange controls;
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• fluctuations in exchange rates may affect demand for our products and services and may adversely affect our profitability and cash flows in U.S. dollars to the extent that our net sales or our costs are denominated in a foreign currency and the cost associated with hedging the U.S. dollar equivalent of such exposures is prohibitive; the longer the duration of such foreign currency exposure, the greater the risk;
• anti-corruption compliance issues, including the costs related to the mitigation of such risk;
• risk of nationalization or other expropriation of private enterprises;
• changes in general economic and political conditions in the countries in which we operate, including changes in government incentive provisions and government program funding;
• unexpectedadverse changes in U.S. or foreign laws or regulatory requirements, including those with respect to environmental protection, import or export duties, tariffs, and quotas;
• opaque approval processes in which the lack of transparency may cause delays and increase the uncertainty of project approvals;
• difficulty in staffing and managing widespread operations;
• difficulty in repatriating earnings;
• difficulty in negotiating a successful collective bargaining agreement in applicable foreign jurisdictions;
• trade barriers such as export requirements, tariffs, taxes, local content requirements, anti-dumping regulations and requirements, and other restrictions and expenses, which could increase the effective price of our solar modules and make us less competitive in some countries or increase the costs to perform under our existing contracts; and
• difficulty of, and costs relating to, compliance with the different commercial and legal requirements of the overseas countries in which we offer and sell our solar modules.
Although we have implemented policies and procedures designed to ensure compliance with the laws, regulations, and policies in each jurisdiction in which we operate, there can be no assurance that all of our employees, contractors, service providers, business partners, and agents will comply with these laws, regulations, and policies.
Risks Related to Regulations
We have received and expect to continue to receive certain financial benefits as a result of tax incentives enacted by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 and amended by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025. If these financial benefits vary significantly from our assumptions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.
In August 2022, the previous U.S. President signed the IRA into law, which was intended to accelerate the country’s ongoing transition to clean energy. The provisions of the IRA are generally effective for tax years beginning after 2022. We expect to qualify for the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X of the IRC, which provides certain specified benefits for solar modules and solar module components manufactured in the United States and sold to third parties. For eligible components, the credit is equal to (i) $12 per square meter for a PV wafer, (ii) 4 cents multiplied by the capacity of a PV cell in watts, and (iii) 7 cents multiplied by the capacity of a PV module in watts. Based on the current form factor of our modules, we believe we qualify for a credit of approximately 17 cents per watt for each module produced in the United States and sold to a third party.
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Such credit may be refundable by the IRS or transferable to a third party and is available from 2023 to 2032, subject to phase down beginning in 2030. For example, during 2025, 2024, and 2023, we entered into various agreements for the sales of Section 45X tax credits generated in 2025, 2024, and 2023, respectively. For further information, see Item 7. “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Liquidity and Capital Resources.” However, there is no assurance that future sales of tax credits will be available to us on similar or alternative terms or at all. In connection with the sale of Section 45X tax credits, we agree to indemnify the purchasers for certain losses they may suffer, including as a result of any inability to claim all or any portion of the Section 45X tax credits sold, subject to certain exceptions and limitations. If we are required to make an indemnification payment to a purchaser of a tax credit it may have a material impact on our results of operations and financial condition. Furthermore, the current U.S. presidential administration and control of the U.S. Congress present uncertainty as to the continued availability of certain benefits. For example, on January 20, 2025, the U.S. President issued the executive order entitled, “Unleashing American Energy,” which, among other things, indicated a lack of support for federal funding of certain solar and solar-related projects. Further, on July 4, 2025, the U.S. President signed H.R.1 into law, commonly referred to as the “One Big Beautiful Bill,” which significantly curtails the availability of certain energy tax credits.
Certain developments to technical guidance and regulations include the following:
• In March 2024, the U.S. Treasury Department and the IRS issued final regulations on the direct payment election under Section 6417 of the IRC. The final regulations apply to tax years ending on or after March 11, 2024, but taxpayers may choose to apply the rules in the final regulations in taxable years ending before March 11, 2024, provided the final regulations are applied in their entirety and in a consistent manner. The final regulations mostly adopted and confirmed the proposed regulations previously issued in June 2023.
• In April 2024, the U.S. Treasury Department and the IRS issued final regulations on the elective transfer provisions under Section 6418 of the IRC. The final regulations apply to taxable years ending on or after April 30, 2024, but taxpayers may choose to apply the rules in the final regulations in taxable years ending before April 30, 2024, provided the final regulations are applied in their entirety and in a consistent manner. The final regulations mostly adopted and confirmed the proposed regulations previously issued in June 2023.
• In October 2024, the U.S. Treasury Department and the IRS issued final regulations on the Section 45X credit confirming key aspects of the credit, including (i) that a vertically-integrated solar module manufacturer is entitled to the sum of the credit amounts for each eligible component that is integrated into the solar module, (ii) the determination of the credit amounts based on standard test conditions, and (iii) the definition of a Section 45X manufacturing facility.
Any modifications to the law or its effects arising, for example, through (i) technical guidance and regulations from the IRS and U.S. Treasury Department, including the certain aspects disclosed above, (ii) subsequent amendments to or interpretations of the law by the IRS, the U.S. Treasury Department, or the courts, (iii) future laws or regulations rendering certain provisions of the IRA less effective or ineffective, in whole or in part, and/or (iv) changes to U.S. government priorities, policies, and/or initiatives as a result of the current U.S. presidential administration and control of the U.S. Congress, could result in changes to the expected and/or actual benefits in the future, which could have a material adverse effect on demand and/or price levels for our solar modules, our net sales, and future expansion plans within the United States, and/or otherwise adversely impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
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Existing regulations and policies, changes thereto, and new regulations and policies may present technical, regulatory, and economic barriers to the purchase and use of PV solar products, which may significantly reduce demand for our modules.
The market for electricity generation products is heavily influenced by federal, state, local, and foreign government regulations and policies concerning the electric utility industry, as well as policies promulgated by electric utilities. These regulations and policies often relate to electricity pricing and interconnection of customer-owned electricity generation. In the United States and certain other countries, these regulations and policies have been modified in the past and may be modified again in the future, which could deter end-user purchases of PV solar products. For example, without a mandated regulatory exception for PV solar power systems, system owners are often charged interconnection or standby fees for putting distributed power generation on the electric utility grid. To the extent these interconnection standby fees are applicable to PV solar power systems, it is likely that they would increase the cost of such systems, which could make the systems less desirable, thereby adversely affecting our business, financial condition, and results of operations. Another example is the effect of governmental land-use planning policies and environmental policies on utility-scale PV solar development. The adoption of restrictive land-use designations or environmental regulations that proscribe or restrict the siting of utility-scale solar facilities could adversely affect the marginal cost of such development.
Our modules are often subject to oversight and regulation in accordance with national and local ordinances relating to building codes, safety, environmental protection, and other matters, and tracking the requirements of individual jurisdictions is complex. Any new government regulations or utility policies pertaining to our modules may result in significant additional expenses to us or our customers and, as a result, could cause a significant reduction in demand for our products. In addition, any regulatory compliance failure could result in significant management distraction, unplanned costs, and/or reputational damage.
We could be adversely affected by any violations of the FCPA, the U.K. Bribery Act, and other foreign anti-bribery laws .
The FCPA generally prohibits companies and their intermediaries from making improper payments to non-U.S. government officials for the purpose of obtaining or retaining business. Other countries in which we operate also have anti-bribery laws, some of which prohibit improper payments to government and non-government persons and entities, and others (e.g., the FCPA and the U.K. Bribery Act) extend their application to activities outside their country of origin. Our policies mandate compliance with all applicable anti-bribery laws. We currently operate in, and may further expand into, key parts of the world that have experienced governmental corruption to some degree and, in certain circumstances, strict compliance with anti-bribery laws may conflict with local customs and practices. In addition, due to the level of regulation in our industry, our operations in certain jurisdictions where norms can differ from U.S. standards may require substantial government contact, either directly by us or through intermediaries over whom we have less direct control, such as subcontractors, agents, and partners (such as joint venture partners). Although we have implemented policies, procedures, and, in certain cases, contractual arrangements designed to facilitate compliance with these anti-bribery laws, our officers, directors, associates, subcontractors, agents, and partners may take actions in violation of our policies, procedures, contractual arrangements, and anti-bribery laws. Any such violation, even if prohibited by our policies, could subject us and such persons to criminal and/or civil penalties or other sanctions potentially by government prosecutors from more than one country, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, cash flows, and reputation.
Environmental obligations and liabilities could have a substantial negative impact on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
Our operations involve the use, handling, generation, processing, storage, transportation, and disposal of hazardous materials and are subject to extensive environmental laws and regulations at the national, state, local, and international levels. These environmental laws and regulations include those governing the discharge of pollutants
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into the air and water, the use, management, and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes, the cleanup of contaminated sites, and occupational health and safety. As we expand our business into foreign jurisdictions worldwide, our environmental compliance burden may continue to increase both in terms of magnitude and complexity. We have incurred and may continue to incur significant costs in complying with these laws and regulations. In addition, violations of, or liabilities under, environmental laws or permits may result in restrictions being imposed on our operating activities or in our being subject to substantial fines, penalties, criminal proceedings, third-party property damage or personal injuryclaims, cleanup costs, or other costs. While we believe we are currently in substantial compliance with applicable environmental requirements, future developments such as more aggressive enforcement policies, the implementation of new, more stringent laws and regulations, or the discovery of presently unknown environmental conditions may require expenditures that could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
Our solar modules contain CdTe and other semiconductor materials. Elemental cadmium and certain of its compounds are regulated as hazardous materials due to the adverse health effects that may arise from human exposure. Based on existing research, the risks of exposure to CdTe are not believed to be as serious as those relating to exposure to elemental cadmium due to CdTe’s limited bioavailability. In our manufacturing operations, we maintain engineering controls to minimize our associates’ exposure to cadmium compounds and require our associates who handle cadmium compounds to follow certain safety procedures, including the use of personal protective equipment such as respirators, chemical goggles, and protective clothing. Relevant studies and third-party peer reviews of our technology have concluded that the risk of exposure to cadmium or cadmium compounds from our end-products is negligible. In addition, the risk of exposure is further minimized by the encapsulated nature of these materials in our products, the physical properties of cadmium compounds used in our products, and the recycling or responsible disposal of our modules. While we believe that these factors and procedures are sufficient to protect our associates, end users, and the general public from adverse health effects that may arise from cadmium exposure, we cannot ensure that human or environmental exposure to cadmium or cadmium compounds used in our products will not occur. Any such exposure could result in future third-party claimsagainst us, damage to our reputation, and heightened regulatory scrutiny, which could limit or impair our ability to sell and distribute our products. The occurrence of future events such as these could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
The use of cadmium or cadmium compounds in various products is also coming under increasingly stringent governmental regulation. Future regulation in this area could impact the design, manufacturing, sale, collection, and recycling of solar modules and could require us to make unforeseen environmental expenditures or limit our ability to sell and distribute our products. For example, European Union Directive 2011/65/EU on the Restriction of the Use of Hazardous Substances (“RoHS”) in electrical and electronic equipment (the “RoHS Directive”) restricts the use of certain hazardous substances, including cadmium and its compounds, in all electronic equipment sold into the European market, unless excluded from the law. Currently, PV solar modules are explicitly excluded from the scope of RoHS (Article 2), as adopted in June 2011. Other jurisdictions have adopted similar legislation or are considering doing so. If PV modules were to be included in the scope of future RoHS revisions without an exemption or under similar regulations in other jurisdictions, we would be required to redesign our solar modules to reduce cadmium and other affected hazardous substances to the maximum allowable concentration thresholds in the RoHS Directive or other similar regulation in order to continue to offer them for sale within the EU or such other jurisdiction. As such actions would be impractical, this type of regulatory development would effectively close the affected market to us, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
Our business is subject to evolving corporate governance and public disclosure regulations and expectations, including with respect to environmental, social, and governance matters, that could expose us to numerous risks.
Companies across many industries are facing increasing scrutiny related to their environmental, social and governance (“ESG”) practices. Investor advocacy groups, certain institutional investors, investment funds and other influential investors may also be focused on ESG practices and in recent years have placed increasing importance on the non-financial impacts of their investments. While our vision is to lead the world’s sustainable energy future
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through solar technology that is eco-efficient and socially responsible, if our ESG practices do not meet investor or other industry stakeholder expectations, which continue to evolve, we may incur additional costs and our brand, business, and ability to attract and retain qualified employees may be harmed.
Furthermore, customer, investor, regulatory, and employee expectations in areas such as corporate responsibility have been rapidly evolving. Certain government agencies and regulators are considering rules requiring the disclosure of certain ESG matters, and we may be subject to those disclosure requirements. For example, in California, the Climate Corporate Data Accountability Act, and the Climate-Related Financial Risk Act each impose climate-related reporting requirements on large companies conducting business in the state of California, and we expect we will be subject to these new laws. Our ability to compete and to meet investor or other industry stakeholder expectations also depends on effectively executing on our approach to responsible sourcing and supply chain due diligence. The enhanced stakeholder focus on ESG issues relating to First Solar requires the continuous monitoring of various and evolving standards and the associated reporting requirements. A failure to adequately meet regulatory requirements and stakeholder expectations or achieve our corporate responsibility-related goals may result in the loss of business, diluted market valuation, an inability to attract customers, or an inability to attract and retain top talent.
As of the date of this filing, we have made several public commitments regarding our intended reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and operating a responsible supply chain with zero tolerance for forced labor. Although we intend to meet these commitments and deliver on our greenhouse gas emissions reduction and renewable energy targets, we may be required to expend significant resources to do so, which could increase our operational costs. Our ESG initiatives could be unsuccessful for various reasons, including due to our growing manufacturing footprint, the lack of offsite renewable energy options in certain jurisdictions, and violations by our suppliers of applicable laws, regulations, and our Supplier Code of Conduct. Given the dynamic nature of ESG standards, expectations, and regulations, which may change over time, we may from time to time need to update or otherwise revise our current targets, practices, and initiatives, including in response to legislative or legal developments. Any actual or perceived inability to meet these commitments and/or deliver on our targets could result in adverse publicity and reactions from investors, activist groups, and other stakeholders, which could adversely impact the perception of First Solar and our products and services by current and potential customers, as well as investors, which could in turn adversely impact our results of operations.
General Risk Factors
Cybersecurity incidents or information or security breaches, or those of third parties with which we do business, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
Our operations rely on our information systems, including hardware, software, and networks, as well as on the information systems of third parties with which we do business (including their upstream and/or downstream service providers, as applicable), to securely process, store, and transmit proprietary, confidential, and other information, including intellectual property and personally identifiable information. We also rely heavily on these information systems to operate our manufacturing lines. These information systems may be compromised by cybersecurity incidents, including those caused by computer viruses, malware, ransomware and other cyber-attacks, as well as other events, including information and security breaches, that could be materially disruptive to our business operations and could put the security of our information, and that of the third parties with which we do business, at risk of misappropriation or destruction. In recent years, such cybersecurity incidents and events have become increasingly frequent and sophisticated, targeting or otherwise affecting a wide range of companies.
Recent developments in the threat landscape include the use of AI and machine learning, as well as an increased number of cyber extortion attacks, with higher financial ransom demand amounts and increasing sophistication and variety of ransomware techniques and methodology. While we have instituted security measures and procured insurance to mitigate the likelihood and impact of a cybersecurity incident and other events, including information and security breaches, there is no assurance that these measures, or those of the third parties with which we do
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business, will be adequate in the future. If these measures are not adequate, among other impacts, valuable information may be lost; our operations may be disrupted; we may be unable to fulfill our customer obligations; and our reputation may suffer. Additionally, any cybersecurity incident affecting our automated manufacturing lines could adversely affect our ability to produce solar modules or otherwise affect the quality and performance of the modules produced.
We may also be subject to litigation, regulatory sanctions, enforcement actions, government fines, remedial expenses, and financial losses beyond the scope or limits of our insurance coverage. These consequences of a failure of security measures could, individually or in the aggregate, have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations. While we and the third parties with which we do business have experienced and may continue to experience cybersecurity incidents and other events, including information and security breaches, we have not experienced any material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or results of operations, or any other material consequences, relating to or as a result of a cybersecurity incident or other such event, whether directed at us or our third parties.
Uncertainty in the development, deployment and use of AI in our products and services, as well as our business more broadly, could adversely affect our business and reputation.
We use systems and tools that incorporate AI-based technologies, including generative AI, for customers and our workforce. As with many new and emerging technologies, AI presents numerous risks and challenges that could adversely affect our business. The development, adoption, integration, and use of generative AI technology remains in early stages, and ineffective or inadequate AI governance, development, use, or deployment practices by us or third parties could result in unintended consequences. For example, AI algorithms that we use may be flawed or may be (or may be perceived to be) based on datasets that are biased or insufficient. In addition, any latency, disruption, or failure in our AI systems or infrastructure could result in delays or errors in our offerings. Inadequate governance, testing, or quality assurance processes could result in flawed deployments, producing erroneous or harmful outputs, which could damage our reputation and lead to legal liabilities. Thoroughly testing generative AI models is challenging due to their complexity and the unpredictability of their outputs. Developing, testing, and deploying resource-intensive AI systems may require additional investment and increase our costs. There also may be real or perceived social harm, unfairness, or other outcomes that undermine public confidence in the deployment and use of AI. Furthermore, third parties may deploy AI technologies in a manner that reduces customer demand for our products and services. Any of the foregoing may result in decreased demand for our products and services or harm to our business, financial condition, results of operations, or reputation.
The legal and regulatory landscape surrounding AI technologies is rapidly evolving and uncertain, including in relation to the areas of intellectual property, cybersecurity, and privacy and data protection. For example, there is uncertainty around the validity and enforceability of intellectual property rights related to our development, deployment, and use of AI. Additionally, third parties that license AI technologies to us may impose unfavorable licensing terms or terminate the licenses altogether which would require us to seek licenses from alternative sources to avoid disruptions in feature delivery. Compliance with new or changing laws, regulations, or industry standards relating to AI may impose significant operational costs and may limit our ability to develop, deploy, or use AI technologies. Failure to appropriately respond to this evolving landscape may result in legal liability, regulatory action, or brand and reputational harm.
Climate-related physical risks, including weather events and natural disasters, may affect our manufacturing operations, supply chains, and customers, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or results of operations.
Climate-related physical impacts of weather events and natural disasters are highly uncertain, unpredictable, and varied by geographic location, including, but not limited to, flooding, hurricanes, wildfires, and tornadoes. Although we carry business interruption insurance coverage and typically have provisions in our contracts that protect us in
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certain events, our coverage may not be adequate to compensate us for all losses that may occur as a direct or indirect result of weather events or natural disasters.
We have manufacturing operations in regions that have experienced extreme weather such as flooding, hurricanes, wildfires, and tornadoes. In case of these or other weather events or natural disasters, (i) our manufacturing and R&D equipment, on-site IT facilities, and inventory, among other things, may be damaged or destroyed, which may result in significant write-offs or significant expenses to repair or replace certain operations; (ii) the production and shipment of our solar modules may be disrupted as a result of (a) the damage or destruction of our facilities and infrastructure, (b) power outages, (c) delayed or cancelled deliveries of equipment and raw materials, and/or (d) the lack of clear and safe physical access to and from our manufacturing facilities, among other things; and (iii) we may be unable to execute our technology roadmap in a timely manner. We also consider the risks associated with weather events and natural disasters as part of our manufacturing site selection, design, and construction process.
Our suppliers may be adversely affected by weather events and natural disasters, which could disrupt their ability to deliver certain manufacturing equipment, materials, and/or services for extended periods of time. Our suppliers may also incur additional costs to repair or replace their own operations, which may cause them to require higher prices as part of current and future contracts and/or otherwise be unable to perform under their existing contract commitments. For additional information regarding the risks related to the sourcing of our manufacturing equipment and raw materials, respectively, see the Risk Factors entitled, “Some of our manufacturing equipment is customized and sole sourced. If our manufacturing equipment fails or if our equipment suppliers fail to perform under their contracts, we could experience production disruptions and be unable to satisfy our contractual requirements.” and “Several of our key raw materials and components are either single-sourced or sourced from a limited number of suppliers, and their failure to perform could cause manufacturing delays and impair our ability to deliver solar modules to customers in the required quality and quantities and at a price that is profitable to us.” For additional information regarding the risks related to supply chain disruptions, see the Risk Factor entitled, “A disruption in our supply chain for CdTe, tellurium, products containing tellurium, or other key raw materials, or equipment could interrupt or impair our ability to manufacture solar modules and could adversely impact our profitability and long-term growth prospects.”
Our customers may be adversely affected by weather events and natural disasters, which could result in significant site damages, including damages to our solar modules installed at those sites. Damages may adversely impact our customers financially, and related business disruptions may delay or accelerate certain project timelines, which could result in an inability to perform under their contracts or otherwise deliver timely payment to us, if at all. Further, as a result of our own potential operational delays mentioned above, our ability to fulfill customer orders may be impaired or delayed, and we could incur significant losses. For additional information regarding the risks related to our customers, see the Risk Factor entitled, “The loss of any of our large customers, or the inability of our customers and counterparties to perform under their contracts with us, including through terminations by customers of any contract in part or in full, has reduced and, in the future, could significantly reduce our net sales and negatively impact our results of operations.”
The severity and duration of public health threats could materially impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
The extent to which public health threats (including pandemics such as COVID-19 or similarly infectious diseases) could impact us in the future is highly uncertain and unpredictable, and will depend largely on subsequent developments, including but not limited to (i) the severity and duration of any public health threat, (ii) measures taken to contain the spread of any public health threat, such as restrictions on travel and gatherings of people and temporary closures of or limitations on businesses and other commercial activities, (iii) the timing and nature of policies implemented by governmental authorities, and (iv) any future variants of the public health threat, which may surge over time. As a result of any public health threat and any related containment measures, we, our suppliers, or customers may be subject to significant risks, including to supply chain and business operations, which have the potential to materially and adversely impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
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If we are unable to attract, train, retain, and successfully integrate key talent into our team, our business may be materially and adversely affected.
Our future success depends, to a significant extent, on our ability to attract, train, and retain management, operations, sales, and technical talent, including associates in foreign jurisdictions. Recruiting and retaining capable individuals, particularly those with expertise in the PV solar and related industries across a variety of technologies, are vital to our success. We are also dependent on the services of our executive officers and other members of our senior management team. The loss of one or more of these key associates could have a material adverse effect on our business. We have a comprehensive succession planning process in place, which contemplates talent at all levels of the organization. However, we may not be able to retain or replace these key associates in a timely manner. Although several of our current key associates, including our executive officers, are subject to employment conditions or arrangements that contain post-employment non-competition provisions, these arrangements permit the associates to terminate their employment with us upon little or no notice. In addition, on April 23, 2024, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (“U.S. FTC”) issued a final rule that, if enforceable, would ban any non-competition provisions, including provisions in existing employment agreements, which could make it more difficult for us to retain qualified associates. On August 20, 2024, a U.S. district court issued an order stopping the U.S. FTC from enforcing the rule effective September 4, 2024 onward, and the U.S. FTC has appealed this order. However, this order does not prevent the U.S. FTC from addressing non-competition provisions on a case-by-case basis. It is uncertain if the rule will be enforceable or whether the language of the final rule could be further modified.
There is substantial competition for qualified technical and manufacturing personnel, and while we continue to benchmark our organization against a broad spectrum of businesses in our market space to remain economically competitive, there can be no assurances that we will be able to attract and retain technical personnel. As we continue to expand domestically and internationally, we may encounter regional laws that mandate union representation or associates who desire union representation or a collective bargaining agreement. If we are unable to attract and retain qualified associates, or otherwise experience unexpected labor disruptions within our business, we may be materially and adversely affected.
We may be exposed to intellectual property violationclaims by third parties, which, if determined adversely to us, could cause us to pay significant damage awards or limit or prohibit the manufacture, use, distribution, export, import, or sale of our solar modules or other technology or know-how.
Our success depends largely on our ability to exploit our technology and know-how without violating the intellectual property rights of third parties. The validity and scope of claims relating to PV solar technology patents involve complex scientific, legal, and factual considerations and analysis and, therefore, may be highly uncertain. We may be subject to legal proceedings involving intellectual property violationclaims by third parties. For example, during 2022, we received various indemnification demands from certain customers, for whom we provided engineering, procurement, and construction (“EPC”) services, regarding claims that such customers’ PV tracker systems infringe, in part, on patents owned by Rovshan Sade (“Sade”), the owner of a company called Trabant Solar, Inc. See Note 14. “Commitments and Contingencies – Legal Proceedings” to our consolidated financial statements for more information on our legal proceedings. The defense and prosecution of intellectual property suits, patent opposition proceedings, and other legal and administrative proceedings can be both costly and time consuming and may significantly divert the efforts and resources of our technical and management personnel. An adverse determination in any such legal proceedings to which we may become a party could subject us to significant liability to third parties, require us to seek licenses from third parties, which may not be available on reasonable terms, or at all, or pay ongoing royalties or other payments, require us to redesign our solar modules or other technology, or subject us to injunctions limiting or prohibiting the manufacture, use, distribution, export, import, or sale of our solar modules or other technology or know-how. Legal proceedings could also result in our customers or potential customers deferring or limiting their purchase or use of our solar modules or other technology or know-how until the resolution of such legal proceedings.
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Currency translation and transaction risk may negatively affect our results of operations.
Although our reporting currency is the U.S. dollar, we conduct certain business and incur costs in the local currency of most countries in which we operate. As a result, we are subject to currency translation and transaction risk. For example, certain business arrangements outside the United States have involved and may involve significant investments denominated in local currencies. Changes in exchange rates between foreign currencies and the U.S. dollar could affect our results of operations and result in exchange gains or losses. We cannot accurately predict the impact of future exchange rate fluctuations on our results of operations.
We could also expand our business into emerging markets, many of which have an uncertain regulatory environment relating to currency policy. Conducting business in such emerging markets could cause our exposure to changes in exchange rates to increase, due to the relatively high volatility associated with emerging market currencies and potentially longer payment terms for our proceeds.
Our ability to hedge foreign currency exposure is dependent on our credit profile with the banks that are willing and able to do business with us. Deterioration in our credit position or a significant tightening of the credit market conditions could limit our ability to hedge our foreign currency exposures; and therefore, result in exchange gains or losses.
Unanticipated changes in our tax position, the enactment of new tax legislation, or exposure to additional income tax liabilities could affect our profitability.
We are subject to income taxes in the various jurisdictions in which we operate. Accordingly, we are subject to a variety of tax laws and interpretations of such laws by local tax authorities. Longstanding international tax laws that determine each country’s jurisdictional tax rights in cross-border international trade continue to evolve as a result of the base erosion and profit shifting reporting requirements and the introduction of the global minimum tax recommended by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (“OECD”). For example, the OECD Pillar Two framework introduces a global minimum corporate tax rate of 15% for companies with global revenues above certain thresholds. While it is uncertain whether the U.S. will enact legislation to adopt Pillar Two, certain jurisdictions in which we operate have adopted, and other jurisdictions are in the process of introducing, legislation to implement Pillar Two. As these rules are implemented and applied to our operating results, our effective tax rate and tax liabilities may be materially affected, including as a result of the geographic mix and profitability of our operations. Given the complexities of Pillar Two, we expect to continue to monitor the changes and evaluate their potential impact to our results of operations.
Additionally, in August 2022, the previous U.S. President signed into law the IRA, which revised U.S. tax law by, among other things, including a new corporate alternative minimum tax (the “CAMT”) of 15 % on certain large corporations, imposing a 1 % excise tax on stock buybacks, and providing various incentives, including the introduction of the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X of the IRC. The provisions of the IRA are generally effective for tax years beginning after 2022. Given the complexities of the IRA, we will continue to monitor these developments and evaluate the potential future impact to our results of operations. For further information, see the Risk Factor entitled, “We have received and expect to continue to receive certain financial benefits as a result of tax incentives enacted by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 and amended by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025. If these financial benefits vary significantly from our assumptions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.” Changes to these and other tax laws and regulations could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
We are subject to potential tax examinations in various jurisdictions, and taxing authorities may disagree with our interpretations of U.S. and foreign tax laws and may assess additional taxes. We regularly assess the likely outcomes of these examinations in order to determine the appropriateness of our tax provision; however, the outcome of tax examinations cannot be predicted with certainty. Therefore, the amounts ultimately paid upon resolution of such
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examinations could be materially different from the amounts previously included in our income tax provision, which could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
In addition, our future effective tax rate could be adversely affected by changes to our operating structure, losses of tax holidays, changes in the jurisdictional mix of earnings among countries with tax holidays or differing statutory tax rates, changes in the valuation of deferred tax assets and liabilities, changes in tax laws, and the discovery of new information in the course of our tax return preparation process. Any changes in our effective tax rate may have a material adverse impact on our business, financial conditions, and results of operations.
We have been and may be subject to or involved in litigation or threatenedlitigation, the outcome of which may be difficult to predict, and which may be costly to defend, divert management attention, require us to pay damages, or restrict the operation of our business.
From time to time, we have been and may be subject to disputes and litigation, with and without merit, that may be costly and which may divert the attention of our management and our resources in general, whether or not any dispute actually proceeds to litigation. The results of complex legal proceedings are difficult to predict. Moreover, complaints filed against us may not specify the amount of damages that plaintiffs seek, and we therefore may be unable to estimate the possible range of damages that might be incurred should these lawsuits be resolved against us. Even if we are able to estimate losses related to these actions, the ultimate amount of loss may be materially higher than our estimates. Any resolution of litigation, or threatenedlitigation, could involve the payment of damages or expenses by us, which may be significant or involve an agreement with terms that restrict the operation of our business. For example, in September 2025, First Solar filed a complaint in the Supreme Court of the State of New York asserting that BP Solar Holding LLC and its affiliate Lightsource Renewable Energy Trading, LLC (together, the “Defendants”) breached their contractual obligations with First Solar and demanding payment from the Defendants of $323.6 million, along with certain other receivables for solar modules previously delivered to the Defendants. In December 2025, the Defendants answered the complaint and filed a series of counterclaims, requesting damages in the amount of $175 million plus the return of $15 million credit support taken by First Solar. Even if any future lawsuits are not resolved against us, the costs of defending such lawsuits may be significant. These costs may exceed the dollar limits of our insurance policies or may not be covered at all by our insurance policies. Because the price of our common stock has been, and may continue to be, volatile, we can provide no assurance that additional securities or other litigation will not be filed against us in the future. See Note 14. “Commitments and Contingencies – Legal Proceedings” to our consolidated financial statements and Item 3. “Legal Proceedings” for more information on our legal proceedings.
Changes in, or any failure to comply with, privacy laws, regulations, and standards may adversely affect our business.
Personal privacy and data security have become significant issues in the jurisdictions in which we operate. The regulatory framework for privacy and security issues worldwide is rapidly evolving and is likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. Furthermore, federal, state, or foreign government bodies or agencies have in the past adopted, and may in the future adopt, laws and regulations affecting data privacy, all of which may be subject to invalidation by relevant foreign judicial bodies. Industry organizations also regularly adopt and advocate for new standards in this area.
In the United States, these include rules and regulations promulgated or pending under the authority of federal agencies, state attorneys general, legislatures, and consumer protection agencies. Internationally, many jurisdictions in which we operate have established their own data security and privacy legal framework with which we, relevant suppliers, and customers must comply. In many jurisdictions, enforcement actions and consequences for noncompliance are also rising. In addition to government regulation, privacy advocates and industry groups may propose new and different self-regulatory standards that either legally or contractually apply to us. Although we have implemented policies, procedures, and, in certain cases, contractual arrangements designed to facilitate compliance with applicable privacy and data security laws and standards, any inability or perceived inability to
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adequately address privacy and security concerns, even if unfounded, or comply with applicable privacy and data security laws, regulations, and policies, could result in additional fines, costs, and liabilities to us, damage our reputation, inhibit sales, and adversely affect our business.
Our Amended and Restated Bylaws designate a state or federal court located within the State of Delaware as the exclusive forum for substantially all disputes between us and our stockholders, and the federal district courts of the United States as the exclusive forum for the resolution of any complaint asserting a cause of action under the Securities Act of 1933, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to choose the judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees, agents or stockholders.
Our Amended and Restated Bylaws (“Bylaws”) provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware lacks subject matter jurisdiction, the federal district court for the District of Delaware) is the sole and exclusive forum for (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, (ii) any action or proceeding asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our directors, officers, other employees, agents or stockholders to us or our stockholders, (iii) any action or proceeding against us or any of our directors, officers, other employees, agents or stockholders arising pursuant to any provision of the Delaware General Corporation Law (“DGCL”), our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation or our Bylaws, (iv) any action or proceeding against us or any of our directors, officers or other employees asserting a claim that is governed by the internal affairs doctrine, or (v) any action or proceeding asserting an “internal corporate claim,” as defined in the DGCL. Our Bylaws also provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the federal district courts of the United States are the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action under the Securities Act. Nothing in our Bylaws precludes stockholders that assert claims under the Exchange Act from bringing such claims in any court, subject to applicable law.
Any person or entity holding, owning or otherwise acquiring any interest in any of our securities shall be deemed to have notice of and consented to these provisions. These exclusive forum provisions may limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum of its choosing for disputes with us or our directors, officers, other employees, agents or stockholders, which may discourage lawsuits against us and our directors, officers, other employees, agents or stockholders. The enforceability of similar choice of forum provisions in other companies’ governing documents has been challenged in legal proceedings, and it is possible that a court could find these types of provisions to be inapplicable or unenforceable. For example, in December 2018, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware determined that a provision stating that federal district courts of the United States are the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act is not enforceable. Although this decision was reversed by the Delaware Supreme Court in March 2020, courts in other states may still find these provisions to be inapplicable or unenforceable. If a court were to find the exclusive forum provisions in our Bylaws to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving the dispute in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our results of operations.
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We are the world’s largest thin film PV solar module manufacturer and the largest PV solar module manufacturer in the Western Hemisphere. We recently commenced operations at our fourth and fifth manufacturing facilities in the United States and completed the expansion of our manufacturing footprint at our existing facilities in Ohio. We are in the process of further expanding our domestic manufacturing capacity, including the construction of our sixth U.S. manufacturing facility to onshore final production processes for modules initiated by our international fleet, which is expected to commence operations in the second half of 2026. Our global manufacturing footprint spans the United States, India, Malaysia, and Vietnam.
Certain of our financial results and other key operational developments for the year ended December 31, 2025 include the following:
• Net sales for 2025 increased by 24% to $5.2 billion compared to $4.2 billion in 2024. The increase in net sales was primarily driven by an increase in the volume of modules sold to third parties.
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• Gross profit as a percentage of net sales decreased 3.6 percentage points to 40.6% in 2025 from 44.2% in 2024. The decrease was primarily driven by higher costs related to a sales mix that included more U.S.-produced modules, higher warehousing costs, additional duties and tariff costs, and higher logistics charges, partially offset by the recognition of higher advanced manufacturing production credits under Section 45X of the IRC.
• During 2025, we commenced production of Series 7 modules at our new manufacturing facility in Louisiana. During 2025, we produced 16.1 GW and sold 17.5 GW of solar modules.
• In June 2025 and July 2025, we entered into two separate agreements for the sale of $701.9 million of Section 45X tax credits we generated during 2025 for aggregate cash proceeds of $668.1 million. We received the full cash proceeds during the year ended December 31, 2025.
• In October 2025, we entered into two separate agreements for the sale of $699.7 million of Section 45X tax credits we generated during 2025 for aggregate cash proceeds of $668.2 million. We received initial cash proceeds of $573.0 million during the year ended December 31, 2025, and expect to receive the remaining cash proceeds of $95.2 million during the first quarter of 2026.
• During 2025, we terminated various master supply agreements with BP Solar Holding LLC and its affiliate Lightsource Renewable Energy Trading, LLC due to the customers’ failure to cure several breaches of their contractual obligations. These terminations triggered certain contractual termination payment provisions amounting to $384.6 million, of which we recognized $61.0 million as revenue for advance payments previously received from the customer. In September 2025, we filed a complaint with the Supreme Court of the State of New York seeking relief and demanding payment from these customers for the remaining termination payments along with certain other receivables for solar modules previously delivered.
Market Overview
Solar energy is one of the fastest growing forms of renewable energy with numerous benefits, including economic benefits and speed of deployment, which make it an attractive complement to or substitute for traditional forms of energy generation. In recent years, the cost of electricity from PV solar power systems has generally been competitive with or below other forms of generation. Other technological developments in the renewable energy industry, such as the advancement of energy storage capabilities, have further enhanced the prospects of solar energy as an attractive complement to traditional forms of energy generation. As a result of these and other factors, worldwide solar markets continue to develop and expand.
Government incentive programs have contributed to this momentum by providing solar module manufacturers, project developers, and project owners with various incentives to accelerate the deployment of solar power generation. For more information about these incentive programs, see Item 1. “Business – Incentive Programs.” Although we compete in markets that do not require solar-specific government incentive programs, our net sales and profits remain subject to variability based on the availability and size of these programs, including tax and production incentives, renewable portfolio standards, and other incentive programs intended to stimulate economies, achieve decarbonization initiatives, and/or establish greater energy independence. Such programs continue to influence the demand for PV solar energy around the world.
Supply and Demand
As a result of the market opportunities described above, we recently commenced operations at our fourth and fifth manufacturing facilities in the United States and completed the expansion of our manufacturing footprint at our existing facilities in Ohio. We are in the process of further expanding our domestic manufacturing capacity, including the construction of our sixth U.S. manufacturing facility to onshore final production processes for modules initiated by our international fleet, which is expected to commence operations in the second half of 2026. We believe
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manufacturers of solar cells and modules, particularly those in China, have significant installed production capacity, relative to global demand, and the ability for additional capacity expansion. Accordingly, we believe the solar industry may experience periods of structural imbalance between supply and demand, which could lead to periods of pricing volatility. Further, demand for solar energy in key markets, such as the United States and India, may be affected by the nature and extent of commitments to the renewable energy transition at the local and global levels. Notwithstanding these considerations, utility and corporate demand for energy and overall electric load growth, especially as a result of AI-driven data center demand, continue to increase. Further, even on an unsubsidized basis, utility-scale PV solar is cost competitive with conventional forms of energy generation, including natural gas and nuclear, and is significantly faster to deploy than a five-year natural gas project development timeline or a much longer nuclear project timeline.
Given the combination of (i) a European market captured by Chinese solar modules, where pricing is at levels near or below manufacturing costs, (ii) an Indian market effectively closed to Southeast Asian products, (iii) a general supply and demand imbalance for Southeast Asian products, and (iv) certain tariffs on modules imported into the United States, we have reduced production of Series 6 modules at our international manufacturing facilities.
In light of these market realities, we continue to advocate for industrial and trade policies that provide a level playing field for manufacturers of solar cells and modules. We also continue to focus on our strategies and points of differentiation, which include our proprietary advanced module technology, our manufacturing process and distributed manufacturing presence, our localized supply chain, our R&D capabilities, our commitment to responsible solar, and our financial stability.
Pricing Competition
The solar industry continues to be characterized by intense pricing competition, both at the module and system levels. This competition may result in an environment in which pricing falls rapidly, which could potentially increase demand for solar energy solutions but constrain the ability for module manufacturers and project developers to sustain meaningful and consistent profitability. Our results of operations could be adversely affected if competitors reduce pricing below their costs, bid aggressively low prices for module sale agreements, or are able to operate at minimal or negative operating margins for sustained periods of time. For certain of our competitors, including many in China, these practices may be enabled by their direct or indirect access to sovereign capital or other forms of state support. Module average selling prices in many global markets have declined. However, recent module pricing in the United States, our primary market, has remained stable due, in part, to the rising demand for domestically manufactured modules as a result of the IRA, energy tax credit eligibility restrictions (including foreign-entity-related limitations) as amended by the OBBBA, and tariffs on modules imported into the United States.
Diverse Offerings
We face intense competition from manufacturers of crystalline silicon solar modules and other emerging technologies. Solar module manufacturers compete with one another on sales price per watt, which may be influenced by several module value attributes, including energy yield, wattage (through a larger form factor or an improved conversion efficiency), degradation, sustainability, and reliability. Sales price per watt may also be influenced by warranty terms, customer payment terms, and/or module attributes. We believe that utility-scale solar will continue to be a compelling offering and will continue to represent an increasing portion of the overall electricity generation mix. However, this focus on utility-scale module offerings exists within a current market environment that includes rooftop and distributed generation solar, which may influence our future offerings.
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We continue to devote significant resources to support the implementation of our technology roadmap and improve the energy output of our modules. In the course of our R&D activities, we explore various technologies in our efforts to sustain competitive differentiation of our modules. Such technologies include the development of bifacial modules, the implementation of our CuRe program, and the ongoing R&D of a viable and commercially scalable perovskite product.
• Bifacial. While conventional solar modules are monofacial, meaning their ability to produce energy is a function of direct and diffuse irradiance on their front side, most module manufacturers offer bifacial modules that also capture diffuse irradiance on the back side of a module. Bifaciality compromises nameplate power, but by converting both front and back side irradiance, such technology may improve the overall energy production of a module relative to nameplate power when applied in certain applications, which could lower the overall LCOE of a system when compared to systems using monofacial solar modules.
• CuRe . Our CuRe program is intended to improve our current semiconductor structure by replacing copper with certain other elements that are expected to enhance module performance by improving its bifaciality characteristics, improving its temperature coefficient, and improving its warranted degradation. As a result of these performance improvements, our PV solar modules are expected to produce more energy in real-world operating conditions over their estimated useful lives than crystalline silicon modules with the same nameplate power. In late 2024, we commenced a limited commercial production run of modules employing our CuRe technology, and during the first half of 2025, we sold our first CuRe modules to customers. Beginning in the first quarter of 2026, we intend to permanently convert one of our Ohio facilities to CuRe, followed by a phased replication of the technology across certain manufacturing facilities within our fleet.
• Perovskite . We continue to research and develop our thin-film semiconductor technology, with a focus on the use of perovskite thin films. Perovskites have the potential to significantly increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of PV solar modules either through single-junction or potentially multi-junction devices. Supported by the associates at our California and European Technology Centers, we continue to advance our work on improving both the efficiency and stability of this technology in developing a commercially scalable perovskite product. Our investment in this technology also includes the construction of a dedicated perovskite development line at our Ohio facility.
Product Efficiencies
The efficienciesgained from the vertical integration of our manufacturing model and our cost management initiatives allow us to compete favorably in markets where pricing for modules and systems is highly competitive. Our cost competitiveness is based in large part on our advanced thin film semiconductor technology, module wattage, proprietary manufacturing process (which enables us to produce a CdTe module in a matter of hours using a continuous and highly automated industrial manufacturing process, as opposed to a batch process), and focus on operational excellence. In addition, our CdTe modules use approximately 2% to 3% of the amount of semiconductor material that is used to manufacture conventional crystalline silicon solar modules. The cost of polysilicon is a significant driver of the manufacturing cost of crystalline silicon solar modules, and the timing and rate of change in the cost of silicon feedstock and polysilicon could lead to changes in solar module pricing levels.
Energy Performance
In many climates, our solar modules provide certain energy production advantages relative to competing crystalline silicon solar modules. As a result, our solar modules can produce more energy in real-world operating conditions than conventional crystalline silicon modules with the same nameplate power. For more information about these advantages, see Item 1. “Business – Business Strategy.” Additionally, we generally warrant that our solar modules will produce at least 98% of their labeled power output rating during the first year, with the warranty coverage
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reducing by a degradation factor every year thereafter throughout the limited power output warranty period of up to 30 years.
While our modules are generally competitive in cost, reliability, and performance attributes, there can be no guarantee such competitiveness will continue to exist in the future to the same extent, or at all. Any declines in the competitiveness of our products could result in declines in the average selling prices of our modules and additional margin compression. Accordingly, we continue to focus on enhancing the competitiveness of our solar modules through our module technology and cost reduction roadmaps.
Certain Trends and Uncertainties
We believe that our business, financial condition, and results of operations may be favorably or unfavorably impacted by the following trends and uncertainties. See Item 1A. “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for discussions of other risks that may affect us.
Our business is evolving worldwide and is shaped by the varying ways in which our offerings can be compelling and economically viable solutions to energy needs in our key markets. In addressing electricity demands, we are focused on providing utility-scale module offerings in markets that we believe have a significant need for mass-scale PV solar electricity, including markets primarily in the United States and India. We closely evaluate and monitor the appropriate level of resources required to support such markets and their associated sales opportunities. When deployed in utility-scale applications, our modules provide energy at a lower LCOE compared to traditional forms of energy generation.
Demand for our PV solar modules depends, in part, on certain factors outside our control. For example, many governments have proposed or enacted policies or incentive programs intended to encourage renewable energy investments to achieve decarbonization objectives and/or establish greater energy independence. While we compete in markets that do not require solar-specific government subsidies or incentive programs, our net sales and profits remain subject to variability based on the availability and size of government subsidies and economic incentives. Adverse changes in these factors could increase the cost of utility-scale systems, which could reduce demand for our solar modules. Recent developments to government incentive programs include the following:
• United States. In August 2022, the previous U.S. President signed the IRA into law, which was intended to accelerate the country’s ongoing transition to clean energy. Among other things, the financial incentives provided by the IRA have significantly increased demand for modules manufactured in the United States. We expect to qualify for the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X of the IRC, which provides certain specified benefits for solar modules and solar module components manufactured in the United States and sold to third parties. However, the current U.S. presidential administration and control of the U.S. Congress present uncertainty as to the continued availability of certain benefits. For example, on January 20, 2025, the U.S. President issued the executive order entitled, “Unleashing American Energy,” which, among other things, indicated a lack of support for federal funding of certain solar and solar-related projects. Further, on July 4, 2025, the U.S. President signed H.R.1 into law, commonly referred to as the “One Big Beautiful Bill,” which significantly curtails the availability of certain energy tax credits. H.R.1 includes accelerating the termination of the clean electricity ITC and PTC in relation to solar and restricting tax credits if a taxpayer employs certain products and components produced by a supplier with ties to a FEOC. H.R.1 also severely limits Section 45X tax credit eligibility for products manufactured by, or with material assistance from, a FEOC. For more information about certain risks associated with the benefits available to us under the IRA, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – We have received and expect to continue to receive certain financial benefits as a result of tax incentives enacted by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 and amended by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025. If these financial benefits vary significantly from our assumptions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.”
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Demand for our PV solar modules also depends on domestic or international trade policies and government regulations, which may be proposed, revised, and/or enacted across short- and long-term time horizons with varying degrees of impact to our net sales, profit, and manufacturing operations. Changes in these policies and regulations could adversely impact the competitive landscape of solar markets, which could reduce demand for our solar modules. Recent revisions or proposed changes to trade policy and government regulations include the following:
• United States . In April 2025, the U.S. President imposed a 10% “baseline” reciprocal tariff on nearly all U.S. trading partners, and additional, higher reciprocal tariffs on certain countries. Effective May 14, 2025, the United States entered into an agreement with China to lower the reciprocal tariff rate to 10% for 90 days. This agreement has since been extended until November 10, 2026. As it pertains to the countries where we manufacture solar modules, IEEPA tariffs applied to Vietnam (20%), India (25%), and Malaysia (19%). In August 2025, the U.S. President had imposed an additional 25% tariff on India over its purchases of Russian oil, resulting in an overall rate of 50%. On February 20, 2026, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the IEEPA tariffs unlawful. President Trump responded immediately by revoking the IEEPA tariff actions and imposing new global tariffs pursuant to Section 122 of the Trade Act of 1974 (“Section 122”), which provides for tariffs up to 15% for a period of no more than 150 days. For more information about this development, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results .”
• United States. Effective June 4, 2025, the U.S. President increased tariffs on imported aluminum and steel articles under Section 232 from 25% to 50%. Effective August 1, 2025, the U.S. President imposed tariffs of 50% on copper under Section 232. Effective October 14, 2025, the U.S. President imposed tariffs of 10% on imported softwood timber and lumber products under Section 232. Further, on April 22, 2025, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce initiated an investigation to determine the effects on the national security of imports of processed critical minerals, as well as their derivative products, under Section 232; on July 1, 2025, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce initiated a Section 232 investigation to determine whether imports of polysilicon and its derivatives impair U.S. national security; and on September 2, 2025, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce initiated an investigation to determine the effects on the national security of imports of robotics and industrial machinery under Section 232. For more information about the context of these developments, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results . ”
• China. In February 2025, China announced that it would tighten export controls for five key minerals, including products containing tellurium, which is one of the main components of our CdTe modules. Although tellurium and products containing tellurium are sourced globally, China is a major global producer of tellurium and products containing tellurium. Exporters of tellurium and related products are generally required to obtain a license from the Chinese Ministry of Commerce. In October 2025, China expanded its rare earths export controls, adding new minerals to its restricted list and requiring foreign entities to obtain a license to export any products containing over 0.1% of rare earths from China or manufactured using China’s extraction, refining, magnet-making, or recycling technology. In November 2025, China announced it would delay imposition of the October 2025 export controls for one year. In February 2026, the U.S. President announced the creation of an approximately $12 billion stockpile of
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critical minerals for U.S. manufacturers in response to the potential supply chain disruptions as a result of Chinese export controls. We have assembled a cross-functional team to interpret the export controls and related developments and analyze how they may impact materials required for our module production. We have applied for and intend to continue applying for export licenses where appropriate, as well as continuing to implement other strategic alternatives, such as sourcing from other suppliers to mitigate potential adverse impacts from these export controls. For more information about this development, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – A disruption in our supply chain for CdTe, tellurium, products containing tellurium, or other key raw materials, or equipment could interrupt or impair our ability to manufacture solar modules and could adversely impact our profitability and long-term growth prospects.”
• United States. In April 2024, the American Alliance for Solar Manufacturing Trade Committee, which includes First Solar, filed a set of AD/CVD petitions with the USDOC and the USITC to impose duties on certain unfairly traded solar products from Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Following final affirmative determinations by the USDOC and USITC that identified final subsidy rates of 534.67% to 3,403.96% for Cambodia, 14.64% to 168.8% for Malaysia, 263.74% to 799.55% for Thailand, and 68.15% to 542.64% for Vietnam, AD/CVD orders, including the assessment of countervailing duties and suspension of liquidation of such products, were issued on June 9, 2025. On July 17, 2025, the Alliance for American Solar Manufacturing and Trade filed another set of AD/CVD petitions with the USDOC and the USITC to impose duties on unfairly traded crystalline silicon solar products from India, Indonesia, and Laos. In addition to a range of allegedillegal subsidies, the petitioners identified dumping margins of 213.96% for India, 89.65% for Indonesia, and 245.79 to 249.09% for Laos. For more information about this development, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.”
• India . The ALMM was introduced in 2021 as a non-tariff barrier to incentivize domestic manufacturing of PV modules by approving the list of models and manufacturers who can participate in certain solar development projects. The ALMM is approved by the MNRE, and any modifications to the ALMM and its application may affect future investments in solar module manufacturing in India. For example, in December 2024, the ALMM was amended to require nearly all solar development projects to use PV modules that contain domestically manufactured solar cells, which is expected to be effective for such projects completed on or after June 2026; in August 2025, the relevant list of qualifying entities was released, which included First Solar as an approved manufacturer. Further, in September 2025, the MNRE released draft amendments that would require nearly all solar development projects to use PV modules that contain domestically manufactured wafers, which is expected to be effective for such projects completed on or after June 2028; the proposed list was released at that time, which included First Solar as an approved manufacturer. In November 2025, the MNRE released a draft proposal that would increase the minimum efficiency of PV modules for manufacturers to be included in the ALMM beginning in 2027, which would potentially impact First Solar’s ability to sell modules within the Indian market. For more information about the ALMM, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – The modification, reduction, elimination, or expiration of government subsidies, economic incentives, eligibility limitations, tax incentives, renewable energy targets, and other support for on-grid solar electricity applications, or the impact of other public policies, such as tariffs or other trade remedies imposed on solar cells and modules or related raw materials or equipment, have, and in the future could, negatively impact demand and/or price levels for our solar modules and limit our growth or lead to a reduction in our net sales or increase our costs, thereby adversely impacting our operating results.”
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Our ability to provide solar modules on economically attractive terms is also affected by the availability and cost of logistics services associated with the procurement of raw materials or equipment used in our manufacturing process and the shipping, handling, storage, and distribution of our modules. To mitigate certain logistics costs, we employ commercial contract structures that provide additional consideration to us if the cost of logistics services, excluding demurrage and detention, exceeds defined thresholds. We may also adjust our shipping plans to include additional lead times for module deliveries and/or use our network of U.S. distribution centers to mitigate logistics costs. Additionally, our manufacturing capacity expansions are expected to bring production activities closer to customer demand, further mitigating our exposure to the cost of ocean freight.
We generally price and sell our solar modules on a per watt basis. As of December 31, 2025, we had entered into contracts with customers for the future sale of 50.1 GW of solar modules for an aggregate transaction price of $ 15.0 billion, which we expect to recognize as revenue through 2030 as we transfer control of the modules to our customers. This volume and transaction price exclude contracts with customers in India for which payment has not been fully secured. This volume includes contracts for the sale of 23.2 GW of solar modules with anticipated price adjustments for future module technology improvements, including enhancements to certain energy related attributes. Based on these potential improvements, the contracted module volume as of December 31, 2025, the expected timing of such improvements being incorporated into our manufacturing process, and the expected timing of module deliveries, such adjustments, if realized, could result in additional revenue of up to $0.6 billion, the majority of which would be recognized in 2027 and 2028. In addition to these price adjustments, certain of our contracts with customers may include favorable or unfavorable price adjustments associated with changes to (i) sales freight in excess of defined thresholds, (ii) changes to certain commodity prices, (iii) the module wattage committed for delivery, (iv) the volume of modules sold that meet certain U.S. domestic content requirements, and (v) changes to certain tariff structures within a defined threshold, among other things. As a result, the revenue recognized from such contracts may increase or decrease in future periods relative to the original transaction price or may otherwise be impacted if a contract is canceled.
While our contracts with customers typically have certain firm purchase commitments and may require our customers to make payments to us if a contract is terminated in certain circumstances, those contract terms have in the past and may in the future be breached by our customers or subject to renegotiation. Among other things, these contract breaches and renegotiations have reduced, and may continue to reduce, the volume of modules sold under the relevant contracts and/or the extent of anticipated price adjustments for future module technology improvements, thereby reducing future sales of solar modules. Furthermore, our ability to subsequently resell solar modules sold under terminated and/or renegotiated contracts may be constrained by the project lead times of our customers, their required module specifications, or other factors. For example, on September 30, 2025, First Solar filed a complaint in the Supreme Court of the State of New York asserting that BP Solar Holding LLC and its affiliate Lightsource Renewable Energy Trading, LLC breached their contractual obligations with First Solar, having entered into various master supply agreements to purchase solar modules from First Solar and then refusing to pay the amounts owed under the purchase orders. For more information about this development, see Part I. Item 3. “Legal Proceedings.”
We monitor our modules’ expected performance through quality and reliability testing, as well as actual performance in certain field installation sites. Any declines in the expected performance attributes of our modules could adversely impact our financial results due to declines in the average selling prices of our modules and additional margin compression. For example, the identified manufacturing issues affecting certain Series 7 modules may adversely impact the average selling prices of our modules or the carrying value of our inventories. These manufacturing issues may also increase product warranty claims by our customers to resolve the premature power loss in affected modules. Any future manufacturing issues, including any additional commitment made by us to remediate the affected modules beyond our limited warranty, could also adversely impact our reputation, financial position, operating results, and cash flows. We may also be subject to certain other risks and uncertainties surrounding module performance as described in Item 1A. “Risk Factors – Problems with product quality or performance may cause us to incur significant and/or unexpected contractual damages and/or warranty and related expenses, damage our market reputation, and prevent us from maintaining or increasing our market share.”
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We are in the process of expanding our domestic manufacturing capacity; this additional capacity, and any other potential investments to add to or otherwise modify our existing manufacturing capacity in response to market demand and competition, may require significant internal and possibly external sources of capital, and may be subject to certain risks and uncertainties described in Item 1A. “Risk Factors,” including those described under the headings “Our future success depends on our ability to effectively balance manufacturing production with market demand, effectively manage our cost per watt, and, when necessary, continue to build new manufacturing plants over time in response to market demand, all of which are subject to risks and uncertainties” and “If any future production lines are not built in line with committed schedules, it may adversely affect our future growth plans. If any future production lines do not achieve operating metrics similar to our existing production lines, our solar modules could perform below expectations and cause us to lose customers.”
Results of Operations
The following table sets forth our consolidated statements of operations as a percentage of net sales for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended December 31,
Net sales
Cost of sales
Gross profit
Selling, general and administrative
Research and development
Production start-up
Litigationloss
Gain on sales of businesses, net
Operating income
Foreign currency loss, net
Interest income
Interest expense, net
Other expense, net
Income tax expense
Net income
Segment Overview
First Solar operates as one business, which involves the design, manufacture, and sale of CdTe solar modules, which convert sunlight into electricity. As such, we operate as a single operating segment. Our third-party customers include system developers, independent power producers, utilities, commercial and industrial companies, large corporate energy buyers, and other system owners and operators.
Net sales
We generally price and sell our solar modules on a per watt basis. During 2025, Silicon Ranch Corporation and NextEra Energy each accounted for 10% or more of our net sales, and the majority of our solar modules were sold to developers and operators of systems in the United States. Substantially all of our net sales during 2025 were denominated in U.S. dollars. We recognize revenue for module sales at a point in time following the transfer of control of the modules to the customer, which typically occurs upon delivery of the modules to the location specified in the terms of the underlying contract. The revenue recognition policies for module sales are further described in Note 2. “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” to our consolidated financial statements.
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The following table shows net sales for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Net sales
Net sales increased by $1.0 billion in 2025 primarily due to a 24% increase in the volume of modules sold to third parties.
Cost of sales
Our cost of sales includes the cost of raw materials and components for manufacturing solar modules, such as glass, transparent conductive coatings, CdTe and other thin film semiconductors, laminate materials, connector assemblies, edge seal materials, and frames or back rails. In addition, our cost of sales includes direct labor for the manufacturing of solar modules and manufacturing overhead, such as engineering, equipment maintenance, quality and production control, and information technology. Our cost of sales also includes depreciation of manufacturing plant and equipment, facility-related expenses, environmental health and safety costs, and costs associated with logistics, warranties, and solar module collection and recycling (excluding accretion).
The following table shows cost of sales for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Cost of sales
% of net sales
Cost of sales increased $750.6 million, or 32%, and increased 3.6 percentage points as a percent of net sales when comparing 2025 with 2024. The increase in cost of sales was driven by (i) higher costs of $651.6 million due to an increase in the volume of modules sold; (ii) higher production costs of $216.5 million, largely due to a higher sales mix of U.S.-produced modules and tariffs on raw materials; (iii) higher logistics costs of $173.1 million, which included detention and demurrage charges; (iv) higher warehousing costs of $130.7 million; and (v) tariffs on international modules imported into the United States of $94.4 million. These increases were partially offset by (vi) a higher sales mix of modules qualifying for the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X of the IRC, which decreased cost of sales by $601.8 million.
Gross profit
Gross profit may be affected by various factors, including the selling prices of our modules, our manufacturing costs, the capacity utilization of our manufacturing facilities, and foreign exchange rates.
The following table shows gross profit for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Gross profit
% of net sales
Gross profit decreased 3.6 percentage points to 40.6% in 2025 from 44.2% in 2024 primarily due to (i) higher costs related to a sales mix that included more U.S.-produced modules; (ii) higher warehousing costs; (iii) additional duties and tariff costs; and (iv) higher logistics charges. As a percentage of net sales, these decreases in gross profit were partially offset by (v) the recognition of higher advanced manufacturing production credits under Section 45X of the IRC.
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Selling, general and administrative
Selling, general and administrative expense consists primarily of salaries and other personnel-related costs, professional fees, insurance costs, and other business development and selling expenses.
The following table shows selling, general and administrative expense for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Selling, general and administrative
% of net sales
Selling, general and administrative expense in 2025 increased compared to 2024 primarily due to (i) higher expected credit losses from an increase in the aging of certain accounts receivable and (ii) higher costs for certain legal matters.
Research and development
Research and development expense consists primarily of salaries and other personnel-related costs; the cost of products, materials, and outside services used in our R&D activities; and depreciation and amortization expense associated with R&D specific facilities and equipment. We maintain a number of programs and activities to improve our technology and processes in order to enhance the performance and reduce the costs of our solar modules.
The following table shows research and development expense for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Research and development
% of net sales
Research and development expense in 2025 increased compared to 2024 primarily due to (i) higher employee compensation expense resulting from an increase in headcount, (ii) higher depreciation and maintenance costs resulting from our significant investments in R&D facilities and equipment, and (iii) higher utility costs.
Production start-up
Production start-up expense consists of costs associated with operating a production line before it is qualified for commercial production, including the cost of raw materials for solar modules run through the production line during the qualification phase, employee compensation for individuals supporting production start-up activities, and applicable facility-related costs. Production start-up expense also includes costs related to the selection of a new site and implementation costs for manufacturing process improvements to the extent we cannot capitalize these expenditures.
The following table shows production start-up expense for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Production start-up
% of net sales
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During 2025 and 2024, we incurred production start-up expense primarily for our fifth and fourth manufacturing facilities in the United States, respectively.
Litigationloss
The following table shows litigationloss for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Litigationloss
% of net sales
Litigationloss was not significant in 2025 or 2024. In July 2021, Southern Power Company filed an arbitration demand with the American Arbitration Association against two of our subsidiaries. In July 2023, the arbitration panel issued an interim award letter adopting certain of Southern’s proposed individual award claims in the amount of $35.6 million. See Note 14. “Commitments and Contingencies” to our consolidated financial statements for further information about this matter.
Foreign currency loss, net
Foreign currency loss, net consists of the net effect of gains and losses resulting from holding assets and liabilities and conducting transactions denominated in currencies other than our subsidiaries’ functional currencies.
The following table shows foreign currency loss, net for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Foreign currency loss, net
Foreign currency loss for the year ended December 31, 2025 increased compared to the prior year primarily due to differences between our economic hedge positions and the underlying currency exposures and higher costs associated with hedging activities related to our subsidiaries in India.
Interest income
Interest income is earned on our cash, cash equivalents, marketable securities, restricted cash, restricted cash equivalents, and restricted marketable securities. Interest income also includes interest earned from late customer payments.
The following table shows interest income for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Interest income
Interest income during 2025 decreased compared to 2024 primarily due to lower average balances of time deposits and marketable securities. This decrease was partially offset by an increase in cash holdings and interest earned on trade receivables.
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Interest expense, net
Interest expense, net primarily comprises interest incurred on debt. We may capitalize interest expense to our property, plant and equipment when such costs qualify for interest capitalization, which reduces the amount of net interest expense reported in any given period.
The following table shows interest expense, net for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Interest expense, net
Interest expense, net during 2025 increased compared to 2024 primarily due to factoring certain trade receivables with recourse, which were accounted for as secured borrowings.
Other expense, net
Other expense, net primarily comprises miscellaneous items and financing fees.
The following table shows other expense, net for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Other expense, net
Other expense, net for the year ended December 31, 2025 was consistent with the prior year.
Income tax expense
Income tax expense or benefit, deferred tax assets and liabilities, and liabilities for unrecognized tax benefits reflect our best estimates of current and future taxes to be paid. We are subject to income taxes in both the United States and numerous foreign jurisdictions in which we operate, principally Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, and India. Significant judgments and estimates are required to determine our consolidated income tax expense. The statutory federal corporate income tax rate in the United States is 21%, and the tax rates in Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, and India are 17%, 24%, 20%, and 17%, respectively. In Malaysia, we have been granted a long-term tax holiday, scheduled to expire in 2027, pursuant to which substantially all of our income earned in Malaysia is exempt from income tax, conditional upon our continued compliance with certain employment and investment thresholds. In Vietnam, we have been granted a long-term tax incentive, scheduled to expire at the end of 2036, pursuant to which income earned in Vietnam is subject to reduced tax rates, conditional upon our continued compliance with certain revenue and R&D spending thresholds.
The following table shows income tax expense for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023:
Years Ended
Change
(Dollars in thousands)
2025 over 2024
2024 over 2023
Income tax expense
Effective tax rate
Our tax rate is affected by the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X and recurring items such as tax rates in foreign jurisdictions and the relative amounts of income we earn in those jurisdictions. The rate is also affected by discrete items that may occur in any given period but are not consistent from period to period. Income tax expense decreased by $61.6 million during 2025 compared to 2024 primarily due to the beneficial
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effects of tax law associated with the IRA, partially offset by a lower relative benefit from the long-term tax holiday in Malaysia and higher pretax income in the current year.
Liquidity and Capital Resources
As of December 31, 2025, we believe that our cash, cash equivalents, marketable securities, cash flows from operating activities, and contracts with customers for the future sale of solar modules will be sufficient to meet our working capital and capital expenditure needs for at least the next 12 months. In addition, as of December 31, 2025 we had availability under an unused $1.0 billion revolving credit facility, as well as various trade receivables factoring arrangements with financial institutions. In February 2026, we terminated the existing revolving credit facility and replaced it with a larger, $1.5 billion revolving facility. For more information about these facilities, see Note 12. “Debt.” To the extent we offer extended payment terms to customers, fail to collect trade receivables in a timely manner, or face other challenges in managing our working capital, we may be required to use our Credit Facility or other temporary sources of funding. As necessary, we also believe we will have adequate access to the capital markets. We monitor our working capital to ensure we have adequate liquidity, both domestically and internationally. We intend to maintain appropriate debt levels based upon cash flow expectations, our overall cost of capital, and expected cash requirements for operations, including near-term expansion activities in the United States. However, our ability to raise capital on terms commercially acceptable to us could be constrained if there is insufficient lender or investor interest due to company-specific, industry-wide, or broader market concerns. Any incremental debt financing could result in increased debt service expenses and/or restrictive covenants, which could limit our ability to pursue our strategic plans.
As of December 31, 2025, we had $2.9 billion in cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities compared to $1.8 billion as of December 31, 2024. This increase was primarily driven by (i) proceeds from the sale of Section 45X tax credits and (ii) higher cash receipts from module sales, including advance payments for future sales, partially offset by (iii) increases in payments made to suppliers, (iv) purchases of property, plant and equipment for our U.S. facilities, (v) various operating expenditures, (vi) certain advance payments for raw materials, and (vii) repayment of debt. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, $0.5 billion and $0.7 billion of our cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities, respectively, were held by our foreign subsidiaries and were primarily based in U.S. dollar, Indian Rupee, and Euro denominated holdings. Our investment policy seeks to preserve our investment principal and maintain adequate liquidity to meet our cash flow requirements, while at the same time optimizing the return on our investments. Pursuant to such policy, we place our investments with a diversified group of high-quality financial institutions and limit the concentration of such investments with any one counterparty. We place significant emphasis on the creditworthiness of financial institutions and assess the credit ratings and financial health of our counterparty financial institutions when making investment decisions.
We use a variety of tax planning and financing strategies in an effort to ensure that our worldwide cash is available in the locations in which it is needed. If certain international funds were needed for our operations in the United States, we may be required to accrue and pay certain U.S. and foreign taxes to repatriate such funds. We maintain the intent and ability to permanently reinvest our accumulated earnings outside the United States, with the exception of certain subsidiaries for which applicable income taxes have been recorded as of December 31, 2025. In addition, changes to foreign government banking regulations may restrict our ability to move funds among various jurisdictions under certain circumstances, which could negatively impact our access to capital, resulting in an adverse effect on our liquidity and capital resources.
Although we compete in markets that do not require solar-specific government subsidies or incentive programs, such incentives continue to significantly influence the demand for PV solar energy around the world. Further, our net sales and profits remain subject to variability based on the availability and size of government subsidies and economic incentives. For example, the financial incentives provided by the IRA have significantly increased demand for modules manufactured in the United States, and we expect the benefits made available to us by the IRA to favorably impact our liquidity and capital resources in future periods. We expect to qualify for the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X of the IRC, which provides certain specified benefits for solar
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modules and solar module components manufactured in the United States and sold to third parties. Such credit may be refundable by the IRS or transferable to a third party and is available from 2023 to 2032, subject to phase down beginning in 2030. Based on the current form factor of our modules, we believe we qualify for a credit of approximately 17 cents per watt for each module produced in the United States and sold to a third party. Accordingly, we expect the advanced manufacturing production credit will provide us with a significant source of funding throughout its remaining period.
In June 2025 and July 2025, we entered into two agreements for the sale of $701.9 million of Section 45X tax credits we generated during 2025 for aggregate cash proceeds of $668.1 million. We received the full cash proceeds during the year ended December 31, 2025. In October 2025, we entered into two agreements for the sale of $699.7 million of Section 45X tax credits we generated during 2025 for aggregate cash proceeds of $668.2 million. We received initial cash proceeds of $573.0 million during the year ended December 31, 2025, and expect to receive the remaining cash proceeds of $95.2 million during the first quarter of 2026. For more information about certain risks associated with the benefits available to us under the IRA, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – “We have received and expect to continue to receive certain financial benefits as a result of tax incentives enacted by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 and amended by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025. If these financial benefits vary significantly from our assumptions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.” See Note 8. “Government Grants” to our consolidated financial statements for further information about government grants.
As a result of various market opportunities and increased domestic demand for our products, we recently commenced operations at our fourth and fifth manufacturing facilities in the United States and completed the expansion of our manufacturing footprint at our existing facilities in Ohio. We are in the process of further expanding our domestic manufacturing capacity, including the construction of our sixth U.S. manufacturing facility to onshore final production processes for modules initiated by our international fleet, which is expected to commence operations in the second half of 2026. We anticipate our investment in this U.S. facility to be approximately $0.3 billion. The capital expenditures necessary to expand our capacity may be financed, in part, by cash on hand, advance payments from customers for module sales in future periods, and the advanced manufacturing production credit described above.
During 2026, we expect to spend between $0.8 billion and $1.0 billion for capital expenditures, including the new facility mentioned above, investments in various R&D initiatives, and upgrades to machinery and equipment. These capital investments, and any other potential investments to implement our technology roadmap, may require significant internal and possibly external sources of capital and may be subject to certain risks and uncertainties described in Item 1A. “Risk Factors,” including those described under the headings “Our future success depends on our ability to effectively balance manufacturing production with market demand, effectively manage our cost per watt, and, when necessary, continue to build new manufacturing plants over time in response to market demand, all of which are subject to risks and uncertainties” and “If any future production lines are not built in line with committed schedules, it may adversely affect our future growth plans. If any future production lines do not achieve operating metrics similar to our existing production lines, our solar modules could perform below expectations and cause us to lose customers.”
We have committed and expect to continue to commit significant working capital to purchase various raw materials used in our module manufacturing process. Our failure to obtain raw materials and components that meet our quality, quantity, and cost requirements in a timely manner could increase our manufacturing costs or interrupt or impair our ability to manufacture our solar modules. Accordingly, we may enter into long-term supply agreements to mitigate potential risks related to the procurement of key raw materials and components, and such agreements may be noncancelable or cancelable with a significant penalty. For example, we have entered into long-term supply agreements for the purchase of certain specified minimum volumes of substrate glass for our PV solar modules. We have the right to terminate certain of these agreements upon payment of specified termination payments (which, in aggregate, are up to approximately $300 million as of December 31, 2025 and decline over the remaining supply
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periods). Additionally, for certain strategic suppliers, we have made, and may in the future be required to make, certain advance payments to secure the raw materials necessary for our module manufacturing.
We have also committed certain financial resources to fulfill our solar module collection and recycling obligations and have established a trust under which these funds are put into custodial accounts with an established and reputable bank. As of December 31, 2025, such funds were comprised of restricted marketable securities of $217.2 million and associated restricted cash and cash equivalents of $6.9 million. As of December 31, 2025, our module collection and recycling liability was $146.0 million. Trust funds may be disbursed for qualified module collection and recycling costs (including capital and facility related recycling costs), payments to customers for assuming collection and recycling obligations, and reimbursements of any overfunded amounts. Investments in the trust must meet certain investment quality criteria comparable to highly rated government or agency bonds. As necessary, we adjust the funded amounts for our estimated collection and recycling obligations based on the estimated costs of collecting and recycling covered modules, estimated rates of return on our restricted marketable securities, and an estimated solar module life of 25 years, less amounts already funded in prior years.
As of December 31, 2025, we had no off-balance sheet debt or similar obligations, other than financial assurance related instruments, which are not classified as debt. We do not guarantee any third-party debt. See Note 14. “Commitments and Contingencies” to our consolidated financial statements for further information about our financial assurance related instruments.
Cash Flows
The following table summarizes key cash flow activity for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023 (in thousands):
Net cash provided by operating activities
Net cash used in investing activities
Net cash (used in) provided by financing activities
Effect of exchange rate changes on cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash, and restricted cash equivalents
Net increase (decrease) in cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash, and restricted cash equivalents
Operating Activities
The increase in net cash provided by operating activities during 2025 was primarily driven by higher cash receipts from module sales, including advance payments for future sales, higher proceeds from the sale of Section 45X tax credits, and higher receipts from factoring certain trade receivables, partially offset by higher payments made to suppliers.
Investing Activities
The decrease in net cash used in investing activities during 2025 was primarily due to lower purchases of property, plant and equipment for our manufacturing facilities in the United States and India and higher net proceeds from sales and maturities of marketable securities.
Financing Activities
The increase in net cash used in financing activities during 2025 was primarily due to repayment of debt, partially offset by new borrowings under various debt agreements.
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Recent Accounting Pronouncements
In December 2023, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740) - Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures , which requires greater disaggregation of an entity’s income tax disclosures. Among other things, ASU 2023-09 requires entities to disclose (i) specific categories in the effective tax rate reconciliation, (ii) pretax income or loss from continuing operations, separated between domestic and foreign jurisdictions, (iii) income tax expense or benefit from continuing operations, separated by federal, state, and foreign jurisdictions, and (iv) income taxes paid to federal, state, and foreign jurisdictions. We adopted ASU 2023-09 on a prospective basis effective January 1, 2025. The adoption did not have an impact on our consolidated financial position or results of operations but did require certain additional income tax disclosures. See Note 18. “Income Taxes” to our consolidated financial statements for the disclosures.
In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU 2024-03, Income Statement - Reporting Comprehensive Income - Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses , which requires additional disclosure of specific types of expenses included in the expense captions presented on the face of the income statement. ASU 2024-03 is effective for public companies for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2026 and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Early adoption is permitted, but we do not expect to do so. The disclosure requirements will be applied on a prospective basis, with the option to apply retrospectively. We are currently evaluating the impact ASU 2024-03 will have on our associated disclosures.
In December 2025, the FASB issued ASU 2025-10, Government Grants (Topic 832) - Accounting for Government Grants Received by Business Entities , to establish guidance on the recognition, measurement, and presentation of government grants received by business entities, which largely codifies our current approach to accounting for such grants. ASU 2025-10 is effective for public companies for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2028 and interim reporting periods within those annual reporting periods. Early adoption is permitted, and we intend to adopt this standard in the first quarter of 2026. The guidance can be applied on a modified prospective basis, a modified retrospective basis, or a full retrospective basis, and we are currently evaluating these options. We do not expect ASU 2025-10 will have a significant impact on our consolidated financial statements or associated disclosures.
Critical Accounting Estimates
In preparing our consolidated financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States (“U.S. GAAP”), we make estimates and assumptions that affect the amounts of reported assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses, as well as the disclosure of contingent liabilities. Some of our accounting policies require the application of significant judgment in the selection of the appropriate assumptions for making these estimates. By their nature, these judgments are subject to an inherent degree of uncertainty. We base our judgments and estimates on our historical experience, our forecasts, and other available information as appropriate. The actual results experienced by us may differ materially and adversely from our estimates. To the extent there are material differences between our estimates and the actual results, our future results of operations will be affected. Our significant accounting policies are described in Note 2. “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” to our consolidated financial statements. The accounting policies that require the most significant judgment and estimates include the following:
Accrued Solar Module Collection and Recycling Liability. We previously established a module collection and recycling program, which has since been discontinued, to collect and recycle modules sold and covered under such program once the modules reach the end of their service lives. For legacy customer sales contracts that are covered under this program, we recognized expense at the time of sale based on the estimated cost to collect and recycle the covered solar modules. We estimate the cost of our obligations based on the present value of the expected future cost of collecting and recycling the solar modules, which includes estimates for the cost of packaging materials; the cost of freight from the solar module installation sites to a recycling center; material, labor, and capital costs; and by-product credits for certain materials recovered during the recycling process. We base these estimates on our
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experience collecting and recycling solar modules and on certain assumptions regarding costs at the time the solar modules will be collected and recycled. In the periods between the time of sale and the related settlement of the collection and recycling obligation, we accrete the carrying amount of the associated liability and classify the corresponding expense within “Selling, general and administrative” expense on our consolidated statements of operations.
We periodically review our estimates of expected future recycling costs and may adjust our liability accordingly. Such adjustments are presented within “Cost of Sales” on our consolidated statements of operations. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we completed our annual cost study of obligations under our module collection and recycling program and determined that no adjustment to the associated liability was necessary. As of December 31, 2025, a 10% increase in the expected future recycling costs per module would increase the liability by $20.3 million.
Product Warranties. We provide a limited PV solar module warranty covering defects in materials and workmanship under normal use and service conditions for up to 12.5 years. We also typically warrant that modules installed in accordance with agreed-upon specifications will produce at least 98% of their labeled power output rating during the first year, with the warranty coverage reducing by a degradation factor every year thereafter throughout the limited power output warranty period of up to 30 years. Among other things, our solar module warranty also covers the resulting power output loss from cell cracking.
When we recognize revenue for sales of modules, we accrue liabilities for the estimated future costs of meeting our limited warranty obligations. We make and revise these estimates based primarily on the number of solar modules under warranty installed at customer locations, our historical experience with and projections of warranty claims, and our estimated per-module replacement costs. We also monitor our expected future module performance through certain quality and reliability testing and actual performance in certain field installation sites.
In general, we expect the return rates for our Series 6 and Series 7 modules to be lower than the rates of our older series. Accordingly, we estimate that the return rate for such newer series of module technology will be less than 1%. As of December 31, 2025, a 10 basis point increase in the return rates across all series of module technology would increase our product warranty liability by $24.3 million.
During the year ended December 31, 2024, we identified manufacturing issues affecting certain Series 7 modules manufactured in 2023 and 2024 that may cause the modules to experience premature power loss once installed in the field. As part of our monitoring of module performance through certain field installation sites, we tested over 100 Series 7 modules, which provided a preliminary view of potential levels of underperformance related to our initial production of Series 7 modules. We then estimated what subset of the entire population of Series 7 modules sold was affected by the manufacturing issues as not all Series 7 modules exhibited the variability in the production process that may lead to the identified underperformance. Accordingly, in arriving at the range of reasonably possible losses, we estimated that approximately two-thirds of Series 7 modules sold prior to December 31, 2024 may have been impacted, based on the Series 7 production schedule and the dates of when the underlying manufacturing issues were addressed at each affected facility.
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During the year ended December 31, 2025, we settled certain of our obligations related to these issues and continued to engage in settlement discussions with various additional customers. We believe a reasonable estimate of potential future losses will range from approximately $35 million to $75 million. The low end of the range of reasonably possible losses reflects this settlement experience and considers performance data from select samples of Series 7 modules compared to warranted levels of performance, along with expectations of favorable Series 7 module energy performance attributes, such as a superior temperature coefficient and spectral response, that may partially offset underperformance from the identified issues. Such estimate of potential net underperformance was multiplied by the average selling price per watt of Series 7 modules to determine the low end of the expected costs to commercially settle warranty claims. The high end of the range of reasonably possible losses excludes any such favorable energy performance expectations from our advanced module technology and includes an estimate of incremental module underperformance beyond that exhibited in our samples of module performance data. Within that range, we recorded a specific warranty liability of $50 million as of December 31, 2025, which represents our best estimate of expected future losses related to the identified manufacturing issues; such liability was recorded as a reduction to revenue.
Government Grants. We continue to evaluate the extent of benefits available to us pursuant to the IRA, which we expect will favorably impact our results of operations in future periods. For example, we currently expect to qualify for the advanced manufacturing production credit under Section 45X of the IRC, which provides certain specified benefits for solar modules and solar module components manufactured in the United States and sold to third parties. For eligible components, the credit is equal to (i) $12 per square meter for a PV wafer, (ii) 4 cents multiplied by the capacity of a PV cell in watts, and (iii) 7 cents multiplied by the capacity of a PV module in watts. Based on the current form factor of our modules, we expect to qualify for a credit of approximately 17 cents per watt for each module produced in the United States and sold to a third party. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we recognized $1.6 billion of Section 45X credits as a reduction to “Cost of sales.”
For further information about certain key aspects of the IRA, see Item 1A. “Risk Factors – We have received and expect to continue to receive certain financial benefits as a result of tax incentives enacted by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 and amended by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025. If these financial benefits vary significantly from our assumptions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.” Any modifications to the law or its effects arising, for example, through (i) subsequent amendments to or interpretations of the law, and/or (ii) future laws or regulations rendering certain provisions of the IRA less effective or ineffective, in whole or in part, could result in material adverse changes to the benefits we have recognized and expect to recognize.
We recognize grants expected to be received directly from a government entity at their stated value. When we expect to transfer grants to a third party, we recognize the grants at, or adjust their carrying value to, the amount expected to be received from the transaction. Accordingly, changes in the expected realization of the grants could affect our results of operations. Additionally, the amount expected to be received from transfers to third parties may fluctuate based on market conditions or other factors that impact whether, and for how much, buyers are willing to purchase such credits.
