CVNA Carvana Co. - 10-K

ITEM 1A. RISK FACTORS.

Described below are certain risks to our business and the industry in which we operate. You should carefully consider the risks described below, together with the financial and other information contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K and in our other public disclosures. If any of the following risks actually occurs, our business, financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and prospects could be materially and adversely affected. As a result, our future results could differ materially from historical results and from guidance we may provide regarding our expectations of our future financial performance, and the trading price of our Class A common stock could decline.

Risk Factors Summary

The following is a summary of the principal factors that make an investment in our securities speculative or risky, all of which are more fully described below in this section. This summary should be read in conjunction with the full description of "Risk Factors" in this section and should not be relied upon as an exhaustive summary of the material risks facing our business. In addition to the following summary and the information in this section, you should consider the other information contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K before investing in our securities.

Risks Related to Our Business

• risks related to the larger automotive ecosystem, including consumer demand, global supply chain challenges, and other macroeconomic issues;

• our ability to raise additional capital to pursue our objectives;

• our ability to effectively manage our rapid growth;

• our ability to maintain customer service quality and reputational integrity and enhance our brand;

• the seasonal and other fluctuations in our quarterly and annual operating results;

• our relationship with DriveTime and other entities affiliated with our controlling stockholder;

• our ability to compete in the highly competitive industry in which we participate;

• the changes in prices of new and used vehicles;

• our ability to acquire and expeditiously sell desirable inventory;

• our ability to comply with the laws and regulations to which we are subject;

• our ability to grow complementary product and service offerings;

• our reliance on internal and external logistics to transport our vehicle inventory;

• our use of artificial intelligence technology;

• our ability to protect the personal information and other data that we collect, process and store;

• breaches in our cybersecurity measures and disruptions in availability and functionality of our systems, website, and mobile application;

• our ability to protect our intellectual property, technology, and confidential information;

• our ability to obtain adequate insurance and the affordability of such insurance;

• our dependence on key personnel to operate our business;

• the risk of receiving less than the full amount of benefit we expect to receive from our minority equity investments;

• risks associated with acquisitions and strategic initiatives;

• legal proceedings; and

• our management’s accounting judgments and estimates, as well as changes to accounting policies.

Risks Related to Our Automotive Finance Receivables

• our dependence on the sale of automotive finance receivables for a substantial portion of our gross profit;

• our access to capital markets at competitive rates and in sufficient amounts;

• errors in contracts with customers, which could render them unenforceable or ineligible for sale;

• the risks related to greater credit losses or prepayments with respect to our automotive finance receivables held; and

• the risk retention rules.

Risks Related to Our Organizational Structure

• the nature of being a holding company;

• the potential for conflicts of interest between our stockholders and LLC Unitholders; and

• risks related to payments due to LLC Unitholders under the Tax Receivable Agreement, if we derive benefits from using certain tax attributes; and

• our status as a "controlled company."

Risks Related to Our Indebtedness and Liquidity

• our substantial indebtedness; and

• our ability to generate sufficient cash flow.

Risks Related to Ownership of our Class A Common Stock

• the volatile trading price of our Class A common stock;

• the Garcia Parties’ control us and their interests may conflict with our or our stockholders’ interests;

• dilution due to issuance of additional Class A common stock or LLC Units in the future;

• we may issue shares of preferred stock in the future;

• Delaware law and our charter may prevent stockholders from changing decisions made by management; and

• the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware is the sole and exclusive forum for certain stockholder litigation.

Risks Related to Our Business

Our business is subject to risks related to the larger automotive ecosystem, including consumer demand, global supply chain challenges, and other macroeconomic issues.

Our business is affected by industry and economic conditions. Purchases of new and used vehicles are typically discretionary for consumers and have been, and may continue to be, sensitive to adverse economic trends. Consumer purchases of new and used vehicles generally decline during recessionary periods and other periods in which disposable income is adversely affected. Further, inflationary impacts on labor, materials, fuel, and other vehicle costs and services, as well as scarcity of certain products, have caused and may again cause increased vehicle prices, which may adversely affect demand and pricing in the used vehicle market. Although the Company is currently focused on long-term growth, if economic conditions worsen or a recession occurs, we may once again be required to take stricter operating efficiency measures to protect our business. Those measures, including restructurings and cost savings, could materially adversely affect our business, operations, and financial results. Further, elevated and volatile interest rates have pressured and may again pressure consumer affordability and monthly payments, which may reduce demand for used vehicles.

Adverse conditions affecting one or more automotive manufacturers could also impact the supply of vehicles and our inventory, change consumer car purchasing behaviors, and have a material adverse effect on our sales and results of operations. Manufacturer recalls and the increased regulatory scrutiny surrounding selling used vehicles with open safety recalls could adversely affect used vehicle sales or valuations, cause us to temporarily remove vehicles from inventory, cause us to sell affected vehicles at a loss, cause us to incur increased costs, and expose us to litigation and adverse publicity related to the sale of recalled vehicles. Further adverse conditions, including labor disruptions at manufacturer facilities, may affect the market for new vehicles, thereby affecting the supply and market for used vehicles.

Our business may also be negatively affected by challenges to the larger automotive ecosystem, including global health crises, such as the past COVID-19 pandemic, which may impact workforces, operations, and consumer behavior; increase in urbanization, which may decrease demand for vehicles due to the popularity of rideshare services such as Uber and Lyft; global supply chain challenges; military conflicts, such as the conflicts in Ukraine and the Middle East, or changes in relations between countries, such as between the United States, China, and Taiwan and conditions in Latin America following the recent U.S. military action in Venezuela; and other macroeconomic and geopolitical issues. New technologies such as autonomous driving software and the increasing popularity of electric vehicles also have the potential to change the dynamics of vehicle ownership in the future and make certain used vehicles more expensive or less desirable. In addition, technology related to generative AI is advancing rapidly, and its future impact on the automotive ecosystem is unknown. Finally, the imposition or suspension of tariffs or other trade restrictions implemented by the U.S. federal government or other countries, including changes to the import tariffs implemented by the U.S. on vehicles and parts, and uncertainty regarding the same, may change vehicle supply or the supply or cost of important vehicle parts and components, as well as customer vehicle purchasing behavior. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. The extent and duration of these impacts are inherently uncertain and could vary materially across geographies and over time.

We may require additional capital to pursue our business objectives and respond to business opportunities, challenges, or unforeseen circumstances. If such capital is not available to us, our business, operating results, and financial condition may be harmed.

We may require additional capital to pursue our business objectives and respond to business opportunities, challenges, or unforeseen circumstances, including to increase our marketing expenditures to improve our brand awareness, build and maintain our inventory of quality used vehicles, develop new products or services, further improve existing products and

services, enhance our operating infrastructure, fund our growth or expansion into new markets, implement strategic initiatives, or acquire complementary businesses and technologies. Accordingly, we may need to engage in equity or debt financings to secure additional capital. However, additional capital may not be available when we need it, on terms that are acceptable to us, or at all. In addition, any debt financing that we secure in the future could involve restrictive covenants which may make it more difficult for us to obtain additional capital and to pursue business opportunities. For example, the indentures governing our Senior Secured Notes limit our ability and certain of our subsidiaries’ ability to, among other things, incur additional debt or issue preferred stock, create new liens, create restrictions on intercompany payments, pay dividends and make other distributions, designate unrestricted subsidiaries, redeem or repurchase stock or prepay subordinated indebtedness, make certain investments or certain other restricted payments, guarantee indebtedness, sell certain kinds of assets, including assets securing our Senior Secured Notes, enter into certain types of transactions with affiliates, and effect mergers or consolidations. See Part II, Item 7 "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Liquidity and Capital Resources."

Volatility in the credit markets may also have an adverse effect on our ability to obtain debt financing. Increased benchmark interest rates, widening credit spreads, reduced lender appetite for automotive or consumer-credit exposures, or rating downgrades could increase our borrowing costs or limit our access to capital. If we are unable to obtain adequate financing or financing on terms satisfactory to us when we require it, our ability to continue to pursue our business objectives and to respond to business opportunities, challenges or unforeseen circumstances could be significantly limited, and our business, operating results, financial condition and prospects could be adversely affected.

Our rapid growth may not be indicative of our future growth and, if we continue growing rapidly, we may not be able to manage our growth and profitability effectively.

Our history has often been characterized by rapid growth. For our revenues and profits to grow, we need a healthy industry and macroeconomic environment, and to successfully increase our penetration in existing markets, enter new markets, acquire more new and repeat customers, further improve the quality of our product offering, features, and complementary products and services, introduce high quality new products, services, and features, expand our brand awareness, and carry sufficient inventory with high enough quality and low enough cost to meet the demand for our vehicles. We have no control over the industry and macroeconomic environment we face, as demonstrated by the challenges we experienced in 2022 and 2023, and our business strategy has and may be adversely affected as a result. Further, even if we succeed and our revenue and profits increase, we may not achieve historical rates of growth.

Our rapid growth has placed and may continue to place significant demands on our management and our operational and financial resources. We have in the past expended, and may again expend, substantial financial and other resources on marketing and advertising, inventory expansion, production capacity expansion, and general administration expenses related to being a growing public company. If we cannot manage our growth effectively to maintain profitability, as well as the quality and efficiency of our customers’ car-buying and selling experience, our business could be harmed and our results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

Our failure to maintain our reputation and to otherwise maintain and enhance our customer service quality and brand could adversely affect our business, sales, and results of operations.

Our business model is based on our ability to provide customers with a transparent and simplified solution to car buying and selling that will save them time and money. Accordingly, our ability to consistently deliver a high-quality experience and our reputation as a company of integrity are critical to our success. Thus, we rely heavily on marketing and advertising to increase brand visibility. If we fail to maintain our reputation, or if an actual, perceived, or alleged failure of these standards occurs that damages this reputation, we could experience reduced consumer trust, lower customer demand, diminished effectiveness of our marketing and brand-building efforts, and a material adverse effect on our business, sales, and results of operations. The operationally intensive aspect of our offering and the nature of automotive retail that necessitates the use of third-party vendors and systems to complete certain ancillary parts of the customer transaction (e.g., vehicle inspections, submitting title and registration paperwork to vendors or state entities) makes maintaining the quality of our customer experience a particularly difficult challenge. For example, we have been the subject of various complaints relating to the timely delivery of certificates of title and registration, and vehicle quality. While we do not believe these claims are material, irrespective of their validity, any claims, complaints, investigations, government inquiries, or negative publicity could diminish customer confidence in our platform and adversely affect our brand. The use of social media increases the speed with which information, misinformation, and opinions can be shared and thus the speed with which our reputation can be affected. Negative or inaccurate postings, articles, reports, or comments on social media, the internet, or the press about us have, from time to time, generated negative publicity that damages the reputation of our brand. If we fail to correct or mitigate misinformation or negative information about us, the vehicles we offer to sell or purchase, our customer experience, or any

aspect of our brand, including information spread through social media or traditional media channels, it could have a material adverse effect on our business, sales, and results of operations.

We experience seasonal and other fluctuations in our quarterly and annual operating results, which may not fully reflect the underlying performance of our business.

Our quarterly and annual results of operations, including our revenue, gross profit, and cash flow, vary from quarter to quarter and year to year based in part on, among other things, consumers’ car-buying patterns. Used vehicle sales generally exhibit seasonality with sales typically peaking late in the first calendar quarter (coinciding with the time when the federal government issues tax refunds) and diminishing through the rest of the year, with the lowest relative level of sales expected to occur in the fourth calendar quarter. Due to our rapid growth, our overall sales patterns in the past have not always reflected the general seasonality of the used vehicle industry. However, as our business and markets continue to mature, we expect our results to become more reflective of typical market seasonality. Used vehicle prices also exhibit seasonality, with used vehicles generally depreciating at a faster rate in the fourth and first quarters of each year and a slower rate in the second and third quarters of each year, all other factors being equal. Other factors that cause our quarterly and annual results to fluctuate include, without limitation:

• profitability or other initiatives;

• fluctuations in consumer demand, vehicle supply, and labor supply due to macroeconomic conditions;

• the timing of sales of our automotive finance receivables;

• our ability to attract new customers;

• changes in the competitive dynamics of our industry;

• the regulatory environment;

• expenses associated with unforeseen quality issues and manufacturer recalls;

• the speed, persistence, and aggregate level of inflation;

• the pace and level of changes in benchmark interest rates; and

• litigation, investigations, regulatory inquiries, or other claims against us.

In addition, a significant portion of our expenses are fixed and do not vary proportionately with fluctuations in revenues. Accordingly, our results in any quarter or year may not indicate the results we may achieve in any subsequent quarter or for the full year, and period-to-period comparisons of our operating results may not be meaningful.

We maintain a business relationship with DriveTime Automotive Inc. and other entities affiliated with our controlling stockholders for certain services and processes.

We maintain a business relationship with DriveTime, a related party due to the Garcia Parties’ control and ownership of substantially all of the interests in DriveTime. We are party to a number of arrangements with DriveTime and its affiliates that cannot be assumed to have been negotiated at arm’s length. We continue to periodically engage DriveTime, its affiliates, and other entities controlled by our controlling stockholder to provide us with certain services, including but not limited to, lease agreements, the administration of VSCs, and the servicing of automotive finance receivables originated by us. DriveTime has also in the past and may in the future purchase or sell certain vehicles or automotive finance receivables from or to us. There can be no assurance that DriveTime and the other affiliates will continue these arrangements on similar terms, or at all, and as a result our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected and historical costs may not always accurately reflect future costs and expenses.

We participate in a highly competitive industry; pressure from existing and new companies may adversely affect our business and operating results.

The used car marketplace is a highly fragmented and highly competitive industry. We face significant competition from companies that provide listings, information, lead generation, and car-buying and selling services designed to reach businesses and consumers and enable dealers to reach these consumers and inventory sources. Our current and future competitors may include:

• traditional used vehicle dealerships such as CarMax;

• internet and online automotive sites, such as Amazon, Autobytel, AutoTrader, Cars, Carfax, CarGurus, eBay Motors, Edmunds, Google, KBB, and TrueCar;

• providers of offline, membership-based car-buying services such as the Costco Auto Program;

• new and used vehicle dealers or marketplaces with e-commerce business or online platforms;

• marketplaces that could compete with our wholesale marketplace program;

• automobile manufacturers such as Ford, General Motors, Toyota, Volkswagen, Tesla, Rivian, and Lucid; and

• privately negotiated transactions.

We also expect that competitors, both new and existing, will continue to enter the online and traditional automotive retail industry with competing brands, business models, products, and services, which could make it difficult to acquire inventory, attract customers, and sell vehicles at a profitable price. Some of these companies may have significantly greater resources than we do and may be able to provide customers access to a greater inventory of vehicles at lower prices or purchase vehicles from consumers at higher prices while delivering a competitive online experience. Additionally, there can be no assurance we will not experience competition from DriveTime, the company from which we were spun off and with which we currently have certain business relationships. Furthermore, we have a cross-license agreement with DriveTime pursuant to which DriveTime has obtained limited licenses to some of our intellectual property, which could impact our competitive position.

Our competitors may also develop and market new technologies that render our existing or future business model, products, and services less competitive, unmarketable, or obsolete. For example, rapid changes in technology, including rideshare services and the development of autonomous vehicles, including those developed by Waymo and Tesla, could lead to a decrease in demand for our products. Competitors may also impede our ability to reach consumers or commence operations in certain jurisdictions. For example, we depend in part on internet search engines, lead generators, automotive finance partners, social networking sites, AI tools, and vehicle listing sites to drive traffic to our website and mobile application and our competitors may increase their search engine optimization efforts and outbid us for search terms on various search engines, use their political influence and increase lobbying efforts, or align with Internet search engine providers to receive a higher search result page ranking than ours. Any reduction in the number of users directed to our website and mobile application through internet search engines, lead generators, automotive finance providers, social networking sites, AI tools, or vehicle listing sites, could harm our business and operating results. In addition, technology related to generative AI is advancing rapidly, and its future impact on the automotive ecosystem is unknown. For example, AI-driven automation and virtual assistants may streamline dealership operations, improve customer engagement, and increase efficiency in sourcing and managing used vehicles, which could significantly alter competitive dynamics and operational requirements in the automotive market.

Private plaintiffs and federal, state, and local regulatory and law enforcement authorities continue to scrutinize advertising, sales, financing, and insurance activities in the purchase, sale, and leasing of used vehicles. If, as a result, other automotive retailers adopt more transparent, consumer-oriented business practices, our differentiation versus those retailers could be reduced.

In addition, if one or more of our competitors, or DriveTime, were to merge or partner with another of our competitors, the change in the competitive landscape could adversely affect our ability to compete effectively. Our competitors may also establish or strengthen cooperative relationships with our current or future data providers, technology partners, or other parties with whom we have relationships, thereby limiting our ability to develop, improve, and promote our solutions. We may not be able to compete successfully against current or future competitors, and competitive pressures may harm our revenue, business, and financial results.

Our business is sensitive to changes in the prices of new and used vehicles.

Any significant changes in prices for new or used vehicles could have a material adverse effect on our revenues and results of operations. An overall increase in used vehicle prices or monthly payments, including as a result of increased interest rates, longer loan terms, or tighter credit standards, makes it difficult for certain customers to afford to purchase a vehicle. Similarly, if prices for used vehicles rise relative to prices for new vehicles, consumers may prefer new vehicles, particularly where manufacturer financing incentives narrow the total cost of ownership gap. Additional manufacturer incentives could also contribute to narrowing this price gap. In addition, while lower used vehicle prices reduce our cost of acquiring inventory, lower prices could also lead to reductions in the prices at which we can sell such inventory, which could create markdown risk and have a negative impact on gross profit. Furthermore, any significant changes in wholesale prices for used vehicles could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations by reducing wholesale margins. Price volatility can also complicate pricing algorithms, appraisal accuracy, and residual value assumptions, potentially leading to increased return rates, inventory write-downs, or reduced financing proceeds.

Our business is dependent upon our ability to acquire desirable vehicles and parts used to recondition vehicles, and to expeditiously sell such vehicle inventory. Obstacles to acquiring and selling attractive inventory, whether because of supply, competition, or other factors, could have a material adverse effect on our business, sales, and results of operations.

We acquire vehicles for sale through numerous sources, including directly from consumers, from wholesale auctions, including our wholesale marketplace, from other large fleet operators, from original equipment manufacturers, and from other retailers, which are evaluated for mechanical soundness, consumer desirability, and relative value as prospective inventory. There can be no assurance that the supply or price of desirable used vehicles will be sufficient to meet our needs. If we fail to adjust appraisal offers to stay in line with broader market trade-in offer trends, to recognize those trends, or to properly assess vehicles before we purchase them, it could adversely affect our ability to acquire desirable inventory. Further, we rely on agreements with third-parties to finance our vehicle inventory purchases, and may require additional financing arrangements in the future. If we are unable to extend the current financing agreements on favorable terms or at all, if the agreements expire and are not renewed, if new financing arrangements are at higher interest rates or with less favorable terms, or if we are unable to secure new financing, our inventory supply may decline. A reduction in the availability of or access to sources of desirable inventory, including parts necessary to recondition such inventory, whether due to supply chain constraints, pricing, or otherwise, could have a material adverse effect on our business, sales, and results of operations.

It is also common that commercial suppliers of used vehicles regularly review their relationships with used vehicle disposition channels, such as our wholesale marketplace platform or retail marketplace offering, through requests for proposals. Such suppliers may from time to time require us to change the way we do business or provide services on less favorable terms. There can be no assurance that our existing agreements will not be canceled or that we will be able to enter into future agreements with these or other suppliers on similar terms, or at all.

Finally, used vehicle inventory has typically represented a significant portion of our total assets. Having such a large portion of our total assets in the form of used vehicle inventory for an extended period of time subjects us to depreciation, inflation, and other risks, which have in the past and may again affect our results of operations. Our purchases of used vehicles are based in large part on projected demand. If actual sales are materially less than our forecasts, we have and may again experience an over-supply of used vehicle inventory. An over-supply of used vehicle inventory will generally cause downward pressure on our product sales prices and margins and increase our average days to sale. This increase has and may again subject us to accelerated depreciation of our vehicle inventory due to changes in economic conditions, which could result in reduced retail and wholesale margins. Accordingly, if we have excess inventory or our average days to sale increases, we may be unable to liquidate such inventory at prices that allow us to meet margin targets or to recover our costs, which could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

We operate in several highly regulated industries and are subject to a wide range of federal, state, and local laws and regulations. Changes in these laws and regulations, or our actual or alleged failure to comply with such laws and regulations, could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

We are subject to a wide range of evolving federal, state, and local laws and regulations, many of which may have limited to no interpretation precedent as it relates to our business model. Our compliance obligations may vary by jurisdiction and change without advance notice. Our sale and purchase of used vehicles and related activities, including financing our customers’ acquisition of those vehicles, shipping and delivery of vehicles and the sale of complementary products and services, are subject to state and local licensing requirements, state laws, regulations, and systems and process requirements related to title and registration, state laws regulating the sale of motor vehicles and related products and services, federal and state laws regulating advertising of motor vehicles and related products and services, federal and state consumer protection laws prohibiting unfair, deceptive or misleading practices toward consumers, customer insurance related regulations, regulations governing the internet, e-commerce or mobile commerce, anti-money laundering regulations, and labor laws.

Dealer and Finance Licensing Regulations: Regulators in jurisdictions in which we have a dealer or finance license have in the past, and may in the future, impose economic fines, suspend or revoke our license, or otherwise preclude us from buying or selling vehicles or providing financing products to customers. Regulators in jurisdictions where our customers reside but in which we do not have a dealer or financing license could require that we obtain a license or otherwise comply with various state regulations, and may seek to impose punitive fines for operating without a license or demand we seek a license in those jurisdictions, any of which may inhibit our ability to do business in those jurisdictions, increase our operating expenses, and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Telephone Consumer Protection Act ("TCPA"). We utilize telephone calls and text messaging as a means of communicating with and marketing to consumers, some of which activities are regulated by the TCPA. Consumers have in the past and may in the future allege violations of the TCPA, and if we fail to adhere to or successfully implement appropriate

processes and procedures in response to existing or future marketing regulations, it could result in legal and monetary liability, fines, penalties, or damage to our reputation. Further restrictions may also adversely affect our ability to attract customers.

Environmental, Transportation, and Logistics Related Laws and Regulations. Our facilities and business operations are subject to a variety of laws and regulations relating to environmental protection and health and safety. Our logistics operations, which we depend on to transport vehicles to and from wholesale auctions, our IRCs, our vending machines, our hubs, and our customers, are subject to regulation by the DOT and by the states through which our vehicles travel. New or additional restrictive limitations on the transport of vehicles, such as the California Zero Emission Vehicle program, could increase our operating expenses.

Finance Related Laws and Regulations. The financing we offer to customers is subject to state licensing laws and to federal and state laws regulating the advertising and provision of consumer finance options, the collection of consumer credit and financial information, along with requirements related to online payments and electronic funds transfers.

The violation of any laws or regulations could inhibit our ability to execute our business, result in administrative, civil, or criminal penalties, or in a cease-and-desist order against some or all of our business activities, any of which could damage our reputation and have a material adverse effect on our business, sales, and results of operations. Additionally, even an allegation that we violated these laws by regulators, competitors, individuals, or consumers, could result in costly litigation with uncertain results. We have incurred and will continue to incur capital and operating expenses and other costs to comply with these laws and regulations.

This description of laws and regulations to which we are or may be subject is not exhaustive, and the regulatory framework governing our operations is subject to evolving interpretations and continuous change. For additional information regarding government regulations and compliance matters we are subject to, see Part I, Item 1 "Business—Government Regulation." The enactment of new laws and regulations or the interpretation of existing laws and regulations in an unfavorable way may affect the operation of our business, directly or indirectly, which could result in substantial regulatory compliance costs, civil or criminal penalties, including fines, adverse publicity, decreased revenues, and increased expenses.

Our ability to grow our complementary product and service offerings may be limited, which could negatively impact our growth rate, revenues and financial performance.

We plan to continue to utilize our online sales platform to offer additional complementary products and services, which may include services or products involving other inventory sources, new vehicles, additional trade-in options, additional financing options, various forms of insurance related to vehicle condition, property and casualty, or other insurance products, subscription services, shipping services, GAP waivers, customized accessories, leasing, or maintenance. We may incur losses or otherwise fail to enter these markets successfully. Our expansion into these markets also places us in competitive and regulatory environments with which we are unfamiliar and involve various risks, including the need to invest significant resources and the possibility that returns on such investments will not be achieved for several years, if at all. In attempting to establish new service or product offerings, we incur significant expenses and face various other challenges, such as expanding our customer advocate, management, and compliance personnel to cover new markets. In addition, we may not successfully demonstrate the value of these complementary products and services to consumers, and failure to do so would compromise our ability to successfully expand into these additional revenue streams. Any of these risks, if realized, could adversely affect our business and results of operations. Consumer protection, insurance, and licensing requirements for ancillary products may also evolve in the future, increasing costs and limiting product design and attach rates.

We rely on internal and external logistics to transport our inventory throughout the United States, which subjects us to business risks and costs associated with the transportation industry. Many of these risks and costs are out of our control, and any of them could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We rely on a combination of internal and external logistics to transport vehicles to and from wholesale auctions, IRCs, hubs, vending machines, and our customers. As a result, we are exposed to risks associated with the transportation industry such as weather, traffic patterns, gasoline prices, recalls affecting our vehicle fleet, local and federal regulations, vehicular crashes, insufficient internal capacity, rising prices of transportation vendors, taxes, license and registration fees, insurance premiums, self-insurance levels, difficulty in recruiting and retaining qualified drivers, disruption of our technology systems, equipment supply, equipment quality, and increasing equipment and operational costs. Our failure to successfully manage our logistics and fulfillment process could cause a disruption in our inventory supply chain and distribution, which may adversely affect our operating results and financial condition. Capacity constraints, labor shortages, and regulatory changes affecting hours-of-service and emissions may increase cost-to-deliver and extend cycle times.

Our use of artificial intelligence may not perform as expected and could expose us to technological, operational, legal, and reputational risks that could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations

We increasingly develop and deploy AI technology through third party generative AI platforms and internal software, in connection with our proprietary systems and customer experiences, including automated, self-service workflows, AI-enabled customer support tools, internal work efficiencies, and enhancement of our recruiting and hiring processes. These initiatives are complex, rapidly evolving, and inherently uncertain. There is no assurance that our AI capabilities will function as intended, deliver anticipated benefits, or scale cost-effectively. The performance, quality, and impact of AI models depend on numerous factors, including the availability and integrity of training data, model design, computational resources, integration with our operations and technology stack, and ongoing monitoring and governance. If our AI systems or those third party platforms we utilize underperform, produce inaccurate, incomplete, or biased outputs, hallucinate or fail under edge cases, degrade customer experiences, inadvertently disclose or misuse intellectual property, or otherwise fail to meet expectations, we could experience decreased conversion, operational disruptions, increased costs, reduced margins, customer dissatisfaction, negative publicity, or harm to our brand and competitive position. Increased use of AI may additionally result in cybersecurity, data privacy, and labor and employment risks.

The laws, rules, standards, and guidance relating to AI are developing rapidly and vary across jurisdictions. We may be subject to evolving requirements regarding transparency, fairness, explainability, safety, data usage and provenance, content integrity, consumer protection, and algorithmic accountability. If we use AI in ways that regulators view as unfair, deceptive, discriminatory, or otherwise noncompliant, we could face heightened scrutiny, investigations, enforcement actions, private litigation, or requirements to modify, suspend, or cease certain AI-enabled practices. To the extent AI touches areas implicating privacy, information security, intellectual property, credit and financing, or other regulated activities, we may incur additional compliance obligations and associated costs.

The development and deployment of AI requires ongoing investments in talent, infrastructure, data quality, tooling, and governance frameworks. These investments may be significant and may not result in improvements to growth, margins, or customer experience. We may need to devote additional resources to testing, monitoring, documentation, and controls to address emerging standards and mitigate model risks, including bias, fairness, and safety. If we are unable to develop, procure, integrate, or govern AI technologies effectively; if third-party AI providers or inputs are unavailable, unreliable, or more costly; if regulatory requirements materially constrain AI use; or if our AI initiatives otherwise fail to meet expectations, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.

We collect, process, store, share, transmit, disclose, and use information, including personally identifiable information. Our actual or perceived failure to protect such information and data, comply with privacy and security-related requirements, mitigate data loss, and/or prevent a cybersecurity or other incident could damage our reputation and harm our business and operating results.

We collect, process, store, share, transmit, disclose, and use sensitive information and other data provided by consumers, employees, and business partners, including personally identifiable information (“PII”) and sensitive personal information ("SPI"), to support our business operations. This information may include social security numbers, credit scores, and financial information. Although we have taken measures designed to safeguard such information, our facilities and systems could be vulnerable to external or internal security breaches, acts of vandalism, computer viruses, misplaced or lost data, programming or human errors, or other similar events. Further, bad actors around the world use increasingly sophisticated methods, including the use of AI, to engage in illegal activities involving the theft and misuse of PII, SPI, confidential information, and intellectual property.

We also rely on third‑party service providers and vendors that process information on our behalf. We have limited ability to control their security and privacy practices, and contractual protections and due diligence may not prevent all incidents. A security incident at a third party could have similar adverse effects on us as an incident on our own systems. The use of AI tools and programs by new or existing vendors may also introduce unique vulnerabilities whose existence or exploitation could have a material adverse effect on our business or operations.

We are subject to numerous and rapidly evolving federal, state, and local laws regarding privacy, cybersecurity and the collection, use, and disclosure of PII and other data. Many states, including California, have implemented laws that give consumers expanded rights to manage their personal information. In addition, cybersecurity has become a high priority for regulators, and some jurisdictions have enacted laws setting forth cybersecurity compliance standards and/or requiring companies to notify certain parties of data security breaches involving certain types of personal data. The SEC has adopted

rules for public companies, requiring the mandatory disclosure of material cybersecurity incidents and the Federal Trade Commission and the New York Department of Financial Services have both also increased incident reporting and expanded cybersecurity program requirements. Any failure or perceived failure to maintain the security of and/or adhere to privacy-related obligations related to personal and other data that is provided to us by consumers, employees, and vendors, or any failure or perceived failure to appropriately report and respond to cyber incidents in accordance with applicable law and contractual obligations, could harm our reputation and expose us to a risk of loss or litigation, regulatory scrutiny or enforcement actions, and possible liability, any of which could adversely affect our business and operating results.

If our cybersecurity measures are breached or there is a disruption in our technology systems, our business, brand, operating results, and financial condition could be harmed.

We are highly dependent on technology networks and infrastructure for our business. Our brand, reputation, and ability to attract consumers depend on the safe and reliable performance of our website and mobile application and the supporting systems, technology, and infrastructure, such as our logistics network. Although we consider cybersecurity protection and system stability to be an important piece of our business, strategy, and management, we have in the past and may in the future experience potentially significant interruptions to our systems. Interruptions in these systems, whether due to system failures, programming or configuration errors, computer viruses, or physical or electronic break-ins, including from ransomware or distributed denial of service attacks, could prevent us from selling cars, providing customary financing options to our customers, limit the availability of the inventory on our website and mobile application, impair consumer access to our platforms, delay communications, or cause a breach of data (including PII, SPI, and other confidential information).

If an actual or perceived breach of our security occurs or there is a disruption in our technology systems, we could lose competitively sensitive business information, intellectual property or experience compromise of our information processes or internal controls. In addition, the public perception of the effectiveness of our security measures or services could be harmed, and we could lose employees, customers, and business partners. In the event of a security breach, we could suffer financial exposure in connection with demands from perpetrators, penalties and fines, remediation efforts, investigations and legal proceedings, and changes in our security and system protection measures. In the event of an error, defects, disruptions, or other performance or reliability problems with our network operations, our customers’ physical or electronic access to our inventory, or purchase, financing, and fulfillment process, and our access to data that drives our inventory purchase operations could be interrupted as well as cause delays and additional expense in arranging access to new facilities and services, any of which could harm our reputation, business, operating results, and financial condition.

A significant portion of our technology footprint, including the technology and infrastructure that supports our website and mobile applications, is hosted in third-party data center facilities that we do not own or control. Our systems and operations are vulnerable to damage or interruption from fire, flood, power loss, telecommunications failure, terrorist attacks, acts of war, electronic and physical break-ins, computer viruses, earthquakes, and similar events. The occurrence of any of these events could damage our systems and hardware or could cause them to fail which could result in interruptions in the delivery of our services or impair our operations, negatively impacting sales and operating results. Further, any problems faced by our web-hosting providers could adversely affect the experience of our customers, and if our web-hosting providers are unable to keep up with our growing capacity needs, our business could be harmed.

Failure to adequately protect our intellectual property, technology, and confidential information could reduce our competitiveness and harm our business and operating results.

Our business depends on our intellectual property, including proprietary algorithms, inventions, website content, mobile applications, trademarks, trade dress rights, registered domain names, AI technology, vending machine design and systems, and other confidential information, the protection of which is crucial to the success of our business. We rely on a combination of patents, trademarks, trade secrets, copyrights, and contractual restrictions to protect our intellectual property, technology, and confidential information. We also require all of our new employees and most contractors to enter into intellectual property assignment agreements and certain third parties to enter into nondisclosure agreements. However, these agreements may not effectively prevent unauthorized use or disclosure of our confidential information, intellectual property, or technology, or grant all necessary rights to any inventions that may have been developed by the employees and consultants. Despite our efforts to protect our proprietary rights, unauthorized parties may attempt to copy aspects of our website or mobile application features, software, and functionality, or to obtain and use information that we consider proprietary. Changes in the law or adverse court rulings may also limit the scope of our rights and inhibit us from preventing others from using our technology. In addition, our use of AI tools, such as our chatbot, into our business has also increased the risk of inadvertent disclosure of proprietary information and trade secrets. Steps taken to mitigate this risk, including agreements with vendors and policies relating to the

safe use of AI tools may not effectively protect proprietary information and any incidents of inadvertent disclosure could undermine our intellectual property rights.

We may, and occasionally in the ordinary course of business do, receive communications alleging infringement or misappropriation of intellectual property or claims relating to licenses with respect thereto. Any claims that we assert against perceived infringers could also provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their intellectual property rights. At any given time, we may be involved as either a plaintiff or a defendant in a number of intellectual property actions, the outcomes of which may not be known for prolonged periods of time. As a result of such claims, we may have to pay monetary damages and lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. Further, even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs, harm our reputation, and divert management attention.

Lastly, we use open source software in our platform and expect to continue doing so. Certain open source licenses could be interpreted to impose unanticipated conditions or restrictions on our ability to market our platform. By the terms of certain open source licenses, we could be required to make our proprietary software available to be used by the public, re-engineer portions of code, or otherwise be limited to use such code or technology if we combine our proprietary software with open source software in a certain manner. Each of which could reduce or eliminate the value of our technologies and services developed.

An inability to obtain adequate insurance on our inventory or auto liability insurance, or the affordability of such insurance, may materially adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

We rely on inventory insurance to protect against catastrophic losses of our inventory, and similarly rely on auto liability insurance to protect us against auto-related liability, in relation to, among other things, our transportation and logistics network. However, the coverage limits of these policies may not be adequate to cover all future claims. Further, there is no guarantee that we will continue to be able to obtain insurance at affordable rates, or at all, through outside insurers. If we are unable to purchase affordable insurance, we may have to self-insure, reducing our ability to make other investments in our business and exposing us to financial risk. In addition, our inability to insure our inventory through an outside insurer, or to adequately self-insure, may adversely impact our ability to finance our inventory purchases. Our inventory is also pledged as collateral in finance agreements, and a failure to maintain sufficient insurance to financially protect the collateral assets could be inconsistent with the requirements of such finance agreements.

We depend on key personnel to operate our business. If we are unable to retain, attract, and integrate qualified personnel, our ability to develop and successfully grow our business could be harmed.

We believe our success has depended, and continues to depend, on the efforts and talents of our executives and employees. Our future success depends on our ability to attract, develop, motivate, and retain highly qualified and skilled employees, including operations staff onsite at IRCs, vending machines, hubs, and auction sites. Qualified individuals are in high demand, and we may incur significant costs to attract and retain them. In addition, the loss or inhibition of any of our key employees or senior executives could materially adversely affect our ability to execute our business plan and strategy, and we may not be able to find adequate replacements on a timely basis, or at all. Our executive officers and other employees are at-will employees, which means they may terminate their employment relationship with us at any time, and their knowledge of our business and industry would be extremely difficult to replace.

We may not receive the full, expected benefit from our minority equity investments, including Root, Inc.

We have certain minority equity investments in other companies, including shares of Series A convertible preferred stock and warrants to acquire Class A common stock in Root (the "Root Warrants"). As a minority equity investor, our influence over these companies is limited, and we may be unable to influence their business plans, assure quality control, set the timing and pace of development, or cause them to effect significant transactions such as large expenditures or contractual commitments, develop insurance or other products, or borrow money. Our inability to control the operations or management of the these companies may result in us receiving or retaining less than the amount of benefit we might otherwise expect to receive from appreciation of the equity investment or from the commercial relationship associated therewith. We may be limited in our ability to monetize or exit our investment in these companies, given contractual restrictions on selling our investment and uncertainty in the trading market for their equity securities. In addition, we have in the past recognized, and may again recognize, decreases in fair value in relation to our Root Warrants, and we may also experience a decrease in fair value in relation to our Series A convertible preferred stock. Any other downward adjustment to or impairment of our equity investments could adversely impact our results of operations and financial condition.

We have acquired, and may continue to acquire, other companies or technologies, which could divert our management’s attention, result in additional dilution to our stockholders and otherwise disrupt our operations and harm our operating results.

In the past, we have occasionally acquired complementary businesses and technologies, including the acquisition of our wholesale marketplace and acquisition of five franchise dealerships, and we may do so again in the future. The identification of suitable acquisition candidates can be difficult, time-consuming, and costly, and we may not be able to successfully complete identified acquisitions. The risks we face in connection with acquisitions include:

• diversion of management time and focus from operating our business to addressing acquisition integration challenges;

• coordination of technology, research and development, and sales and marketing functions;

• transition of the acquired company’s users to our website and mobile application;

• retention of employees from the acquired company;

• entry into certain new lines of business may subject us to new laws and regulations or additional operational costs;

• cultural challenges associated with integrating employees from the acquired company into our organization;

• integration of the acquired company’s accounting, management information, human resources, cybersecurity, and other administrative systems;

• the need to implement or improve controls, policies, and procedures at a business that, prior to the acquisition, may have lacked effective controls, policies, and procedures;

• potential write-offs of intangibles or other assets acquired in such transactions that may have an adverse effect on our operating results;

• liability for activities of the acquired company before the acquisition, including patent and trademark infringement claims, violations of laws, commercial disputes, tax liabilities, and other known and unknown liabilities;

• litigation or other claims in connection with the acquired company, including claims from terminated employees, consumers, former investors, or other third parties; and

• incurrence of significant expenses in connection with integration.

Our failure to address these risks or other challenges encountered in connection with our past or future acquisitions and investments could cause us to fail to realize the anticipated benefits of these acquisitions or investments, cause us to incur unanticipated liabilities, and otherwise harm our business. Acquisitions could also result in dilutive issuances of our equity securities, the incurrence of debt, contingent liabilities, and amortization expenses, any one of which could harm our financial condition. Additionally, acquisitions have resulted, and may again result, in impairments of intangible assets such as goodwill, and tangible assets. Any of these risks, if realized, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We are, and may in the future be, subject to legal proceedings, claims, and investigations, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

We are subject to various legal proceedings, claims, inquiries, and investigations, from time to time, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition. Legal claims have been and could be asserted against us by individuals, either individually or through class actions, by governmental entities in civil or criminal investigations and proceedings, or by other entities. These claims have been and could be asserted under a variety of laws, including but not limited to consumer finance laws; consumer protection laws; intellectual property laws; laws governing motor vehicle dealers; laws, regulations, and systems and process requirements related to title and registration; state laws regulating the sale of motor vehicles and related products and services; privacy laws; labor and employment laws; securities laws; employee benefit laws; tax laws; contract laws; and tort laws. These actions have in the past and could in the future expose us to adverse publicity and to substantial monetary damages and legal defense costs, injunctive relief, and criminal and civil fines and penalties, including but not limited to suspension or revocation of licenses to conduct business.

In June 2025, we received a subpoena from the SEC requesting information that we believe primarily relates to allegations raised by a report published by a now-defunct short-selling firm. We currently cannot predict the outcome of this matter. For more information, see Item 3. Legal Proceedings.

Further, the Attorney General offices of various states, from time to time, conduct inquiries regarding our inspection, reconditioning, advertising, sale, delivery, titling, registration, lending practices, and post-sale service of retail vehicles. When such inquiries arise, we work with government agencies to respond to these requests and cooperate with any such inquiries, which if not amicably resolved, could result in state Attorney General offices filing claims against us.

Our results of operations and financial condition are subject to management’s accounting judgments, estimates, and changes in accounting policies.

The preparation of our financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions affecting the reported amounts of our assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses. If these estimates or assumptions are incorrect, it could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations or financial condition. We have identified several accounting policies as being "critical" to the fair presentation of our financial condition and results of operations because they involve major aspects of our business and require us to make judgments about matters that are inherently uncertain. These policies are described in "Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" and the notes to consolidated financial statements included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Further, the implementation of new accounting requirements or other changes to U.S. generally accepted accounting principles could have a material adverse effect on our reported results of operations and financial condition.

Risks Related to our Automotive Finance Receivables

We depend on the sale of automotive finance receivables for a substantial portion of our gross profit.

Many of our customers utilize our financing services to finance the acquisition of a vehicle from us. We then typically sell the resulting automotive finance receivables, and the proceeds therefrom account for a substantial portion of our gross profit. However, customers may elect to finance their vehicle purchases through other parties who may be able to offer more attractive terms. Any material decline in automotive finance receivables sold or the prices at which they are sold would result in the loss of a historically significant portion of our gross profits. The prices we are able to charge for automotive finance receivables that we sell are based on a variety of factors, including the terms and credit risk associated with automotive finance receivables, the relationship between the interest rates we quoted the customer at the time they priced their financing and market and projected interest rates at the time we sell the automotive finance receivables, forecasted loss rates, the historical credit performance of the automotive finance receivables we sell, demand for assets and related securities of that type in the financial markets, and other factors. If these variables or other factors were to change, we might be required to reduce our sale prices on automotive finance receivables, sell fewer of them, or both, which would reduce our gains on sales of automotive finance receivables. In addition, our ability to sell automotive finance receivables on acceptable terms depends on investor demand and liquidity in the asset-backed securities and whole-loan markets. A reduction in investor demand, widening credit spreads, or changes in underwriting expectations could adversely affect execution, including required discounts, advance rates, and time to sale.

The terms of the financing we offer are dependent in part on our assessment of such customers’ credit-worthiness, which is based on data gathered from customers and other parties and assessed by our proprietary technology tools. If customers or other parties provide us with incorrect or fraudulent data, or if our technology miscalculates or incurs other errors not identified through our underwriting process, we may offer inappropriate terms to our customers, resulting in originating automotive finance receivables that do not perform as expected or that we are unable to sell because they are based on inaccurate credit profiles. Originating a material amount of receivables with inaccurate or fraudulent credit profiles could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Any material decline in our access to the capital markets at competitive rates and in sufficient amounts could harm our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

We provide financing to customers and typically sell the related automotive finance receivables. For example, we have entered into various arrangements to pledge or sell automotive finance receivables that we originate, including through committed structured finance arrangements, term securitizations and fixed pool loan sales to financing partners, and plan to enter into new arrangements in the future. Our ability to obtain funding through those channels is subject to having sufficient assets eligible for use as collateral for the related programs and our ability to obtain derivatives to manage interest rate risk among other considerations. If we are unable to continue obtaining funding through those channels, including because we reached our capacity under these or future arrangements, our financing partners exercised constructive or other termination rights before we reached capacity or we reached the scheduled expiration date of the commitment, or if we are unable to enter into new arrangements on similar terms, we may not have adequate liquidity and our business, financial condition, and results of operations may be adversely affected. Furthermore, if our financing partners cease to purchase these receivables, we could be subject to the risk that some of these receivables are not paid when due and we are forced to incur unexpected asset write-offs and bad debt expense.

In addition, changes in the condition of the securitization market could lead us to incur higher costs to access funds in the market or lose access to the market, requiring us to seek alternative means to finance those originations that could be more

expensive, or retain credit risk in excess of those required under the Risk Retention Rules (as defined below), which may prevent us from derecognizing the loans and recognizing a gain on sale. As a result, the value of any securities that we may retain in our securitizations might be reduced or, in some cases, eliminated as a result of an adverse change in economic conditions or the financial markets.

Errors in our contracts with our customers could render them unenforceable, ineligible for sale, or require us to repurchase them.

We enter into purchase agreements, buyer’s orders, retail installment contracts, consumer loan contracts, and other contracts with our customers that are generated automatically based upon information the customer enters into our website or mobile application, and are subject to our underwriting process. The contracts are intended to comply with the applicable consumer lending and other commercial and legal requirements of the relevant jurisdictions. The auto-generated forms have contained, however, and may again in the future contain errors or omissions or otherwise fail to comply with applicable regulations in a manner that would render such contracts unenforceable. For example, most jurisdictions impose a maximum interest rate cap that we can charge our customers. If we exceed the relevant cap, our retail installment contracts in such jurisdiction may be unenforceable, and in some instances, we may be required to pay damages or repay any financing charges previously collected. If a significant number of our retail installment contracts are rendered unenforceable, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.

The financing partners who agree to buy or fund our automotive finance receivables, and the terms of our securitizations, require that we make certain customary representations about the eligibility of those automotive finance receivables for sale. If these receivables do not meet the specified representations, we have in the past been, and will likely in the future be, forced to repurchase these receivables. If we sell a significant amount of receivables that do not meet the predetermined representations, we may be required to use cash on hand or to obtain alternative financing in order to repurchase them. Any significant repurchases could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition, and may jeopardize our ability to sell contracts to those or other financing partners or purchasers in the future.

We may experience greater credit losses or prepayments in automotive finance receivables than we anticipate.

Until we sell automotive finance receivables, and to the extent we retain interests in automotive finance receivables, we are exposed to the risk that applicable customers will be unable or unwilling to repay their loans according to their terms and that the vehicle collateral securing the payment of their loans may not be sufficient to ensure full repayment. Credit losses are inherent in the automotive finance receivables business and could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

We make various assumptions and judgments about the automotive finance receivables we originate using internally developed models to forecast loss rates and may provide an allowance for loan losses, value beneficial ownership interests, and estimate prepayment rates based on a number of factors that we believe are appropriate. However, these allowance, interests, or estimates may not be adequate. For example, if economic conditions were to deteriorate unexpectedly, additional loan losses not incorporated in the existing allowance or valuation may occur. Further, if the receivables we sell experience higher loss rates than forecasted, we may obtain less favorable pricing on the receivables we sell to financing partners or in securitizations in the future and suffer reputational harm in the marketplace for the receivables we sell. As a result, losses or prepayments in excess of expectations could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Risk Retention Rules may increase our compliance costs, limit our liquidity and otherwise adversely affect our operating results.

"Risk retention" rules promulgated by U.S. federal regulators under the Dodd-Frank Act (the "Risk Retention Rules") require a "securitizer" or "sponsor" of a securitization transaction to retain, directly or through a "majority-owned affiliate" (each defined in the Risk Retention Rules), in one or more prescribed forms, at least 5% of the credit risk of the securitized assets. For the securitization transactions for which we have acted as "sponsor," we have sought and will likely continue to seek to satisfy the Risk Retention Rules by retaining a "vertical interest" (as defined in the Risk Retention Rules) through either a majority-owned affiliate or directly on our balance sheet. In addition, we have entered into, and will likely continue to enter into, arrangements to finance a portion of the retained credit risk in one or more prescribed forms under the Risk Retention Rules. However, holding risk retention interests or automotive finance receivables in contemplation of structured financing increases our exposure to the performance of the automotive finance receivables that underlie or are expected to underlie those transactions. For additional information, see Note 2 — Summary of Significant Accounting Policies and Note 8 — Securitizations and Variable Interest Entities.

Risks Related to Our Organizational Structure

Our principal asset is our indirect interest in Carvana Group, and, accordingly, we depend on distributions from Carvana Group to pay our taxes and expenses, including payments under our debt obligations and Tax Receivable Agreement. Carvana Group’s ability to make such distributions may be subject to various limitations and restrictions.

We are a holding company and have no material assets other than our indirect ownership of LLC Units of Carvana Group. As such, we have no independent means of generating revenue or cash flow, and our ability to pay our taxes, debt obligations, and operating expenses depends on the financial results and cash flows of Carvana Group and its subsidiaries and distributions we receive from Carvana Group. Under the terms of the limited liability agreement of Carvana Group (the "LLC Agreement"), Carvana Group is obligated to make distributions to LLC Unitholders, including Carvana Co. Sub LLC ("Carvana Co. Sub"), our wholly owned subsidiary, to allow us to pay for income taxes on our allocable share of the net taxable income of Carvana Group. The LLC Agreement also obligates Carvana Group to make distributions to us to allow us to pay for our debt obligations, which are represented by our Senior Secured Notes and Senior Unsecured Notes (described in Part II, Item 7 "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Liquidity and Capital Resources" and Note 9 — Debt Instruments), and to pay for our obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement (as defined in Note 14 — Income Taxes).

While we intend to cause Carvana Group to make distributions to us in an amount sufficient to fund these taxes, obligations, and expenses, Carvana Group’s ability to make such distributions may be subject to various limitations and restrictions, including, without limitation, (i) prohibitions or restrictions contained in current and future debt agreements and other contracts; (ii) applicable law (including limited liability company law, creditor protection laws governing payments and asset transfers, and solvency tests); (iii) applicable regulatory or licensing requirements; and (iv) actual or projected liquidity needs and other business requirements of Carvana Group. If we do not have sufficient funds to pay taxes, obligations or expenses, we may have to borrow funds, which could materially adversely affect our liquidity and financial condition and subject us to various restrictions imposed by any such lenders.

Conflicts of interest could arise between our stockholders and the LLC Unitholders, which may impede business decisions that could benefit our stockholders.

Holders of LLC Units have the right to consent to certain amendments to the LLC Agreement, as well as to certain other matters, including the revaluation of membership interests in Carvana Group. Holders of these voting rights may exercise them in a manner that conflicts with the interests of our stockholders. Circumstances may arise in the future when the interests of the LLC Unitholders conflict with the interests of our stockholders. As we control Carvana Group, we have certain obligations to the LLC Unitholders that may conflict with fiduciary duties our officers and directors owe to our stockholders. These conflicts may result in decisions that are not in the best interests of stockholders.

Further, as discussed above, as a unitholder of Carvana Group, we are entitled to receive tax distributions to pay for our allocable share of income taxes. These tax distributions will likely exceed (as a percentage of Carvana Group’s income) the overall effective tax rate applicable to a similarly situated corporate taxpayer. As a result of differences in taxable income allocations between us and the LLC unitholders and applicable tax rates, we may receive distributions significantly in excess of our tax liabilities and obligations to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement. To the extent we do not distribute such cash balances as dividends on our Class A common stock and instead, for example, hold such cash balances or lend them to Carvana Group, the LLC Unitholders would benefit from any value attributable to such accumulated cash balances as a result of their ownership of Class A common stock following an exchange of its LLC Units (including any exchange upon an acquisition of us).

The Tax Receivable Agreement with the LLC Unitholders requires us to make cash payments to them in respect of certain tax benefits to which we may become entitled, and we expect that the payments we will be required to make will be substantial.

We are party to a Tax Receivable Agreement with the LLC Unitholders, pursuant to which we will be required to make cash payments to such LLC Unitholders equal to 85% of the tax benefits, if any, that we actually realize, or, in some circumstances, are deemed to realize, as a result of (1) the increase in our wholly owned subsidiary’s proportionate share of the existing tax basis of the assets of Carvana Group and an adjustment in the tax basis of the assets of Carvana Group reflected in that proportionate share as a result of any exchanges of LLC Units held by the LLC Unitholders for shares of our Class A common stock or cash, and (2) certain other tax benefits related to payments we make under the Tax Receivable Agreement. Due to the uncertainty of various factors, we cannot reliably estimate the likely tax benefits we will realize as a result of future

LLC Unit exchanges, and the resulting amounts we are likely to pay to LLC Unitholders pursuant to the Tax Receivable Agreement; however, we estimate that such payments may be substantial. Any payments made by us to the LLC Unitholders under the Tax Receivable Agreement will generally reduce the amount of overall cash flow that might have otherwise been available to us, and will reduce funds available for reinvestment in our business.

To the extent that we are unable to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement, such payments generally will be deferred and will accrue interest until paid. Nonpayment for a specified period, however, may constitute a breach of a material obligation under the Tax Receivable Agreement and therefore accelerate payments due under the Tax Receivable Agreement, unless, generally, such nonpayment is due to a lack of sufficient funds. Furthermore, our future obligation to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement could make us a less attractive target for an acquisition, particularly in the case of an acquirer that cannot use some or all of the tax benefits that may be deemed realized under the Tax Receivable Agreement. The payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement are also not conditioned upon the LLC Unitholders maintaining a continued ownership interest in Carvana Group.

The actual amount and timing of any payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement will vary depending upon a number of factors, including the timing of exchanges by the LLC Unitholders, the amount of gain recognized by such LLC Unitholders, the amount and timing of the taxable income we generate in the future and the federal tax rates then applicable.

The amounts that we may be required to pay to the LLC Unitholders under the Tax Receivable Agreement may be accelerated in certain circumstances and may also significantly exceed the actual tax benefits that we ultimately realize.

The Tax Receivable Agreement provides that if (1) certain mergers, asset sales, other forms of business combination, or other changes of control were to occur, (2) we breach any of our material obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement or (3) we elect an early termination of the Tax Receivable Agreement, then the Tax Receivable Agreement will terminate and our obligations, or our successor’s obligations, to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement would accelerate and become immediately due and payable. The amount due and payable in that circumstance is based on certain assumptions, including an assumption that we would have sufficient taxable income to fully utilize all potential future tax benefits that are subject to the Tax Receivable Agreement. We may need to incur debt to finance payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement to the extent our cash resources are insufficient to meet our obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement as a result of timing discrepancies or otherwise.

As a result of a change in control or our election to terminate the Tax Receivable Agreement early, (1) we could be required to make cash payments to the LLC Unitholders that are greater than the specified percentage of the actual benefits we ultimately realize in respect of the tax benefits that are subject to the Tax Receivable Agreement and (2) we would be required to make an immediate cash payment equal to the present value of the anticipated future tax benefits that are the subject of the Tax Receivable Agreement, which payment may be made significantly in advance of the actual realization, if any, of such future tax benefits. In these situations, our obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement could have a substantial negative impact on our liquidity and could have the effect of delaying, deferring, or preventing certain mergers, asset sales, other forms of business combination, or other changes of control. There can be no assurance that we will be able to finance our obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement.

We will not be reimbursed for any payments made to the LLC Unitholders under the Tax Receivable Agreement in the event that any tax benefits are disallowed.

We will not be reimbursed for any cash payments previously made to the LLC Unitholders pursuant to the Tax Receivable Agreement if any tax benefits initially claimed by us are subsequently challenged by a taxing authority and are ultimately disallowed. Instead, any excess cash payments made by us to an LLC Unitholder will be netted against any future cash payments that we might otherwise be required to make under the terms of the Tax Receivable Agreement. However, a challenge to any tax benefits initially claimed by us may not arise for a number of years following the initial time of such payment or, even if challenged early, such excess cash payment may be greater than the amount of future cash payments that we are required to make under the terms of the Tax Receivable Agreement and, as a result, there may not be future cash payments to net against. The applicable U.S. federal income tax rules are complex and factual in nature, and there can be no assurance that the IRS or a court will agree with our tax reporting positions. As a result, it is possible that we could make cash payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement that are substantially greater than our actual cash tax savings.

We may not be able to realize all or a portion of the tax benefits that are currently expected to result from future exchanges of LLC Units for our Class A common stock and from payments made under the Tax Receivable Agreement.

Our ability to realize the tax benefits that we currently expect to be available as a result of (i) tax basis increases arising from exchanges of LLC Units for our Class A common stock or cash, (ii) payments made pursuant to the Tax Receivable Agreement, and (iii) the interest deductions imputed under the Tax Receivable Agreement all depend on a number of assumptions, including that we earn sufficient taxable income each year during the period over which such deductions are available and that there are no changes in applicable law or regulations. For example, changes in corporate tax rates or in the treatment of basis adjustments have reduced and may again reduce the value of such tax benefits. Any reduction in the value of such tax benefits is expected to have two primary consequences—it reduces the cash payments we expect to be required to make pursuant to the Tax Receivable Agreement and it reduces the expected value to us of the 15% of the amount of such tax benefits that we will retain pursuant to the Tax Receivable Agreement. Additionally, if our actual taxable income were insufficient or there were additional adverse changes in applicable laws or regulations, we may be further unable to realize all or a portion of the expected tax benefits and our cash flows and stockholders’ equity (deficit) could be negatively affected.

We are a "controlled company" within the meaning of the rules of the NYSE and, as a result, we qualify for exemptions from certain corporate governance requirements. Our stockholders may not have the same protections afforded to stockholders of companies that are subject to such requirements.

The Garcia Parties control a majority of the combined voting power of Carvana Co. As a result, we continue to be a controlled company within the meaning of the NYSE corporate governance standards. Under such standards, a company of which more than 50% of the voting power is held by an individual, group, or another company is a "controlled company" and need not comply with certain requirements, including that a majority of our board of directors (the "Board") consist of independent directors, that our compensation and nominating and governance committees be composed entirely of independent directors, and that our Board and committees be subject to annual performance evaluations. We do not currently utilize these exemptions; however, for so long as we qualify as a controlled company, we will maintain the option to utilize some or all of these exemptions. In the event we rely on these exemptions in the future, our stockholders would not have the same protections afforded to stockholders of companies that are subject to all of the corporate governance requirements of the NYSE.

Risks Related to Our Indebtedness and Liquidity

Our substantial indebtedness, including any additional indebtedness incurred in the future, could adversely affect our financial flexibility, ability to incur additional debt, and our competitive position and prevent us from fulfilling our obligations under our financing agreements.

As of December 31, 2025, we had outstanding, on a consolidated basis, (1) $107 million aggregate principal amount of our Senior Unsecured Notes, (2) $3.9 billion aggregate principal amount of our Senior Secured Notes, (3) $58 million aggregate principal amount of borrowings under our Floor Plan Facility and the Finance Receivable Facilities (as defined below), (4) $157 million aggregate principal amount of indebtedness represented by our finance lease agreements between us and providers of equipment financing, (5) an outstanding balance of $374 million under our secured borrowing facility through which we finance certain retained beneficial interests in our securitizations, (6) $485 million of other long-term debt related to our sale leaseback transactions, and (7) an outstanding balance of $23 million under a loan and security agreement to finance certain equipment for our transportation fleet. Our substantial indebtedness has had and could have further significant effects on our business. For example, it has or could:

• make it more difficult for us to satisfy our obligations with respect to our current and future indebtedness, including o ur Senior Secured Notes and Senior Unsecured Notes (collectively the "Senior Notes," each as defined in Note 9 — Debt Instruments), the Floor Plan Facility, and Finance Receivable Facilities;

• increase our vulnerability to adverse changes in prevailing economic, industry, and competitive conditions;

• require us to dedicate a substantial portion of our cash flow from operations to make payments on our indebtedness, thereby reducing the availability of our cash flow to fund working capital, capital expenditures, acquisitions, the execution of our business strategy, and other general corporate purposes;

• limit our flexibility in planning for, or reacting to, changes in our business and the industry in which we operate;

• limit our ability to incur additional debt or increase our cost of borrowing;

• restrict us from exploiting business opportunities; and

• place us at a disadvantage compared to our competitors that have fewer debt obligations.

We also may incur significant additional indebtedness in the future, subject to the restrictions in the indentures governing the Senior Notes, or we may pursue investments in joint ventures or acquisitions, which we may finance with additional debt. If we incur additional debt, the related risks that we face would intensify.

We may not be able to generate sufficient cash flow to service all of our indebtedness, and may be forced to take other actions to satisfy our obligations under such indebtedness, which may not be successful, or may harm our business.

Our ability to make scheduled payments or to refinance outstanding debt obligations depends on our financial and operating performance, which will be affected by prevailing economic, industry, and competitive conditions and by financial, business, and other factors beyond our control. Additionally, some of our debt accrues interest at a variable rate that is based on SOFR or other market rates; if those market rates rise, so too will the amount we need to pay to satisfy our debt obligations, and we have been in the past and may again be required to enter into hedging agreements, which may not fully mitigate our interest rate risk, and may expose us to risk of financial loss if the counterparty defaults on its contractual obligations. We may not be able to maintain a sufficient level of cash flow from operating activities to permit us to pay the principal, premium, if any, and interest on our indebtedness. Any failure to make payments of interest and principal on our outstanding indebtedness on a timely basis would likely result in a reduction of our credit rating, which would also adversely affect our ability to incur additional indebtedness.

If our cash flows and capital resources are insufficient to fund our debt service obligations, we may be forced to reduce or delay capital expenditures, sell assets, seek additional capital from banks or other lenders, through public offerings or private placements of debt or equity, through strategic relationships or other arrangements, or from a combination of these sources, or seek to restructure or refinance our indebtedness. Any refinancing of our indebtedness could be at higher interest rates and may require us to comply with more onerous covenants. These alternative measures may not be successful, and we may be unable to meet our scheduled debt service obligations.

In the absence of such cash flows and resources, we could face substantial liquidity problems and might be required to sell material assets or operations to attempt to meet our debt service obligations. We may not be able to consummate these asset sales to raise capital or sell assets at prices and on terms that we believe are fair, and any proceeds that we do receive may not be adequate to meet any debt service obligations then due. If we cannot meet our debt service obligations, the holders of our indebtedness may accelerate such indebtedness and, to the extent such indebtedness is secured, foreclose on our assets. In such an event, we may not have sufficient assets to repay our indebtedness. If any of these risks are realized, our business and financial condition would be materially adversely affected. Further, in the event of our bankruptcy, dissolution, or liquidation, the holders of our Senior Notes and our other indebtedness would be paid in full before any distribution can be made to the holders of our Class A common stock.

Risks Related to Ownership of our Class A Common Stock

The market price of our Class A common stock has been and may continue to be volatile or may decline regardless of our operating performance.

Volatility in the market price of our Class A common stock may prevent our stockholders from being able to sell their shares at or above the price they paid for them. The market price of our Class A common stock has fluctuated, and may continue to fluctuate widely due to many factors, some of which may be beyond our control. The closing price of our Class A common stock between January 1, 2025 and January 1, 2026 has ranged from a low of $162.57 to a high of $472.73. Many factors may cause the market price of our Class A common stock to fluctuate significantly, including those described elsewhere in this "Risk Factors" section and this Annual Report on Form 10-K, as well as the following:

• adverse impacts to the larger automotive ecosystem, including consumer demand, global supply chain challenges (including the impact of increased tariffs), and other macroeconomic issues;

• previous and future strategic actions and manipulations of the market for our securities by short sellers and "short squeezes" (including the impact of the report published in the first quarter of 2025 by a now-defunct short-selling firm);

• our operating and financial performance and prospects;

• our quarterly or annual earnings or those of other companies in our industry compared to market;

• future announcements or press coverage concerning our business or our competitors’ businesses;

• the public’s reaction to our press releases, other public announcements, and filings with the SEC;

• the size of our public float;

• trading volume;

• coverage by or changes in financial estimates by securities analysts or failure to meet their expectations;

• market and industry perception of our success, or lack thereof, in pursuing our growth strategy;

• strategic actions by us or our competitors, such as acquisitions or restructurings;

• changes in laws or regulations which adversely affect our industry or us;

• negative research about our business or downgrades of our Class A common stock published by analysts or journalists or downgrades of our credit rating;

• changes in accounting standards, policies, guidance, interpretations, or principles;

• changes in senior management or key personnel;

• issuances, exchanges, or sales or expected issuances, exchanges, or sales of our capital stock;

• cybersecurity events, pandemics, and other crises or disasters;

• adverse resolution of new or pending litigation, claims, or investigations against us; and

• changes in general market, economic, and political conditions in the United States and global economies or financial markets, including those resulting from natural disasters, terrorist attacks, acts of war, and responses to such events.

In addition, broad market and industry factors may materially reduce the market price of our Class A common stock, regardless of our operating performance. Because we do not intend to pay dividends on our Class A common stock for the foreseeable future, any return on investment in our Class A common stock is solely dependent upon the appreciation of the price of our Class A common stock on the open market, which may not occur. Sustained or significant declines in our stock price could also increase the likelihood of stockholder litigation, which could result in substantial costs and divert management attention.

The Garcia Parties control us and their interests may conflict with our or our stockholders’ interests in the future.

The Garcia Parties together hold approximately 83% of the voting power of our outstanding capital stock through their beneficial ownership of our Class A and Class B common stock as of December 31, 2025. The Garcia Parties are entitled to ten votes per share of Class B common stock they beneficially own, for so long as the Garcia Parties maintain, in the aggregate, direct or indirect beneficial ownership of at least 25% of the outstanding shares of Class A common stock (determined on an as-exchanged basis assuming that all of the Class A Units were exchanged for Class A common stock). Our Class A common stock and all other shares of Class B common stock have one vote per share. So long as the Garcia Parties continue to beneficially own a sufficient number of shares of Class B common stock, even if they beneficially own significantly less than 50% of the shares of our outstanding capital stock, the Garcia Parties will continue to be able to effectively control our business. For example, if the Garcia Parties hold Class B common stock representing 25% of our outstanding capital stock, they would collectively control 71% of the voting power of our capital stock.

As a result, the Garcia Parties have the ability to elect all of the members of our Board and thereby effectively control our policies and operations, including the appointment of management, future issuances of our Class A common stock or other securities, the payment of dividends, if any, on our Class A common stock, the incurrence of debt by us, amendments to our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws, and the execution of extraordinary transactions. The interests of the Garcia Parties may not in all cases be aligned with our other stockholders’ interests.

In addition, the Garcia Parties can determine the outcome of all matters requiring stockholder approval, cause or prevent a change of control of our company, and preclude any acquisition of our company. This concentration of voting control could deprive our stockholders of an opportunity to receive a premium for their shares of Class A common stock as part of a sale of our company and could affect the market price of our Class A common stock.

The Garcia Parties may also have an interest in pursuing acquisitions, divestitures, and other transactions that, in their judgment, could enhance their investment, even though such transactions might involve risks. For example, the Garcia Parties could cause us to make acquisitions that increase our indebtedness or cause us to sell revenue-generating assets. The Garcia Parties may from time to time acquire and hold interests in businesses that compete directly or indirectly with us. The Garcia Parties control and own substantially all interest in DriveTime, which could compete more directly with us in the future. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation provides that none of the Garcia Parties and/or their respective directors, partners, principals, officers, members, managers and/or employees (including any who also serves as one of our officers or directors) or his or her affiliates has any duty to refrain from engaging, directly or indirectly, in the same business activities or similar business activities or lines of business in which we operate. The Garcia Parties also may pursue acquisition opportunities that may otherwise be complementary to our business, and, as a result, those acquisition opportunities may not be available to us.

Our stock may be diluted by future issuances of additional Class A common stock or LLC Units in connection with our incentive plans, acquisitions, or otherwise. Future sales of such shares in the public market or the expectations that such sales may occur could lower our stock price.

We issue additional shares of Class A common stock in several ways: (i) as authorized by our Board, in its sole discretion, whether in connection with acquisitions or otherwise; (ii) at the request of LLC Unitholders, requiring Carvana Group to redeem all or a portion of their LLC Units in exchange for newly issued shares of Class A common stock; (iii) under our equity incentive plans available to our directors, employees and consultants; and (iv) under our “at-the-market offering” program (the “ATM Program”) that provides for the sale of the greater of (i) a number of shares of Class A common stock representing an aggregate offering price of $461 million or (ii) an aggregate of 21 million shares of its Class A common stock, from time to time.

Any stock that we issue or exchange dilutes the percentage ownership held by the investors who hold Class A common stock. The market price of shares of our Class A common stock could decline as a result of newly issued or exchanged stock, or the perception that we might issue or exchange stock. A decline in the price of our Class A common stock might impede our ability to raise capital through the issuance of additional shares of Class A common stock or other equity securities. In addition, in order to raise additional capital, we may in the future offer additional shares of our Class A common stock or other securities convertible into or exchangeable for our Class A common stock at various prices. Investors purchasing shares or other securities in the future could have rights superior to existing stockholders, and any future equity offerings will result in further dilution for our existing stockholders.

We may issue shares of preferred stock in the future, which could make it difficult for another company to acquire us or could depress the price of our Class A common stock, or otherwise adversely affect holders of our Class A common stock.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation authorizes us to issue one or more series of preferred stock. Our Board has the authority to determine the preferences, limitations, and relative rights of the shares of preferred stock and to fix the number of shares constituting any series and the designation of such series, without any further vote or action by our stockholders. Our preferred stock could be issued with voting, liquidation, dividend, and other rights superior to the rights of our Class A common stock. The potential issuance of preferred stock may delay or prevent a change in control of us, discouraging bids for our Class A common stock at a premium to the market price, and materially adversely affect the market price and the voting and other rights of the holders of our Class A common stock.

Delaware law and certain provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation may prevent efforts by our stockholders to change the direction or management of our company.

We are a Delaware corporation, and the anti-takeover provisions of Delaware law impose various impediments to the ability of a third party to acquire control of us, even if a change of control would be beneficial to our existing stockholders. In addition, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and our amended and restated by-laws contain provisions that may make the acquisition of our company more difficult without the approval of our Board, including, but not limited to, the following:

• the Garcia Parties are entitled to ten votes for each share of our Class B common stock they hold of record on all matters submitted to a vote of stockholders for so long as the Garcia Parties maintain direct or indirect beneficial ownership of at least 25% of the outstanding shares of Class A common stock (determined on an as-exchanged basis assuming that all of the Class A Units were exchanged for Class A common stock);

• at such time as there are no outstanding shares of Class B common stock, only our Board may call special meetings of our stockholders;

• we have authorized undesignated preferred stock, the terms of which may be established and shares of which may be issued without stockholder approval; and

• we require advance notice and duration of ownership requirements for stockholder proposals.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation also contains a provision that provides us with protections similar to Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law ("DGCL"), and prevents us from engaging in a business combination with a person (excluding the Garcia Parties and their transferees) who acquires at least 15% of our common stock for a period of three years from the date such person acquired such common stock, unless board or stockholder approval is obtained prior to the acquisition. These provisions could discourage, delay, or prevent a transaction involving a change in control of our company. These provisions could also discourage proxy contests and make it more difficult for our stockholders to elect directors of their choosing and cause us to take other corporate actions our stockholders desire, including actions that our

stockholders may deem advantageous, or negatively affect the trading price of our Class A common stock. In addition, because our Board is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions could in turn affect any attempt by our stockholders to replace current members of our management team.

These and other provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, amended and restated bylaws, and Delaware law could make it more difficult for stockholders or potential acquirers to obtain control of our Board or to initiate actions that are opposed by our then-current Board, a merger, tender offer, or proxy contest involving our company. The existence of these provisions could negatively affect the price of our Class A common stock and limit opportunities for our stockholders to realize value in a corporate transaction.

With limited exceptions, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware is the sole and exclusive forum for certain stockholder litigation matters, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees, or stockholders.

Pursuant to our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware is the sole and exclusive forum for (1) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, (2) any action asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our directors, officers, or other employees to us or our stockholders, (3) any action asserting a claim against us arising pursuant to any provision of the DGCL, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or our amended and restated bylaws, or (4) any other action asserting a claim against us that is governed by the internal affairs doctrine. The forum selection clause in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation may have the effect of discouraging lawsuits against us or our directors and officers and may limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees, or stockholders.

ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS.

The following discussion should be read in conjunction with Part I, including matters set forth in the "Risk Factors" section of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, and our financial statements and notes thereto included in Part II, Item 8 "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Except when stated otherwise, we present the discussion in Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations on a consolidated basis.

Overview

Carvana is the leading e-commerce platform for buying and selling used cars. We are transforming the used car buying and selling experience by giving consumers what they want - a wide selection, great value and quality, transparent pricing, and a simple, no pressure transaction. Each element of our business, from inventory procurement to fulfillment and overall ease of the online transaction, has been built for this singular purpose.

See Part I, Item 1 - "Business" for a detailed description and discussion of the Company's business.

Refer to " Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations " in Part II, Item 7 of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 filed with the SEC on February 19, 2025 for discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the fiscal year ended December 31, 2023.

Retail Vehicle Unit Sales

Since launching to customers in Atlanta, Georgia in January 2013, we have experienced rapid growth in sales through our website www.carvana.com. During the year ended December 31, 2025, the number of vehicles we sold to retail customers increased by 43.3% to 596,641, compared to 416,348 in the year ended December 31, 2024.

We continue to view the number of vehicles we sell to retail customers as the most important long-term measure of our performance, and we expect to continue to focus on building a scalable platform to efficiently increase our retail units sold. This focus on retail units sold is motivated by several factors:

• Retail units sold enable multiple revenue streams, including the sale of the vehicle itself, the sale of finance receivables originated to finance the vehicle, complementary products, and the sale of vehicles acquired from customers.

• Retail units sold are the primary driver of customer referrals and repeat sales. Each time we sell a vehicle to a new customer, that customer may refer future customers and can become a repeat buyer in the future.

• Retail units sold allow us to benefit from economies of scale due to our centralized online sales model. We believe our model provides meaningful operating leverage in acquisition, reconditioning, transport, customer service, and delivery.

We continue to prioritize efficient growth in retail units sold, absent any material changes in macroeconomic conditions. To prioritize growth, we are pursuing investments in technology and infrastructure, while simultaneously maintaining our focus on efficiency gains and profitability. This includes continued investment in our vehicle acquisition, reconditioning and logistics network, as well as partnerships, product development and engineering to deliver customers a best-in-class experience.

Revenue and Gross Profit

We generate revenue on retail units sold from four primary sources: the sale of the retail vehicles, wholesale sales of vehicles we acquire from customers, including sales through our wholesale marketplace, gains on the sales of loans originated to finance the vehicles, and sales of complementary products.

Our largest source of revenue, retail vehicle sales, totaled $14.5 billion and $9.7 billion during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We generally expect retail vehicle sales to trend proportionately with retail units sold, absent any material changes in macroeconomic conditions. We generate a majority of gross profit on retail vehicle sales from the difference between the retail selling price of the vehicle and our cost of sales associated with acquiring the vehicle and preparing it for sale. Retail vehicle sales also include shipping and delivery fees and service revenue from retail marketplace transactions, which are retail marketplace partner vehicles sold to customers through Carvana, that, depending on the structure of the partnership, may receive net revenue treatment.

Wholesale sales and revenues includes sales of trade-ins and other vehicles acquired from customers that do not meet the requirements for our retail inventory. We also include revenue earned from the sale of wholesale marketplace units by non-Carvana sellers through our wholesale marketplace platform, including auction fees and related service revenues, in wholesale sales and revenues. Wholesale sales and revenues totaled $4.1 billion and $2.8 billion during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We generally expect wholesale sales to trend proportionately with retail units sold through inventory we acquire via trade-ins and from customers who wish to sell us a car independent of a retail sale and with the movement of wholesale marketplace units. We generate gross profit on wholesale vehicle sales from the difference between the wholesale selling price of the vehicle and our cost of sales associated with acquiring the vehicle and preparing it for sale. We generate a gross profit on wholesale marketplace units from the difference between the revenue earned from the sale of wholesale marketplace units through our wholesale marketplace platform less our cost of sales associated with operating the wholesale marketplace platform.

Other sales and revenues, which primarily includes gains on the sales of finance receivables we originate and sales commissions on complementary products such as VSCs, GAP waiver coverage, and auto insurance, totaled $1.7 billion and $1.2 billion during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We generally expect other sales and revenues to trend proportionately with retail units sold. We also expect other sales and revenues to increase as we improve our ability to monetize loans we originate, including through securitization transactions, and sell and offer attractive financing solutions and complementary products to our customers, including products customarily sold by automotive retailers or insurance products customarily sold by traditional insurance companies, absent any material changes in macroeconomic conditions. Other sales and revenues are 100% gross margin products for which gross profit equals revenue.

Our highest priority continues to be providing exceptional customer experiences while making effective use of our infrastructure to support efficient growth in retail units sold. Strategies to support efficient growth initiatives, which we may undertake from time to time, include the following:

• Increase the purchase of vehicles from customers. Over time, we plan to grow the number of vehicles that we purchase from our customers as trade-ins or independent of a retail sale. This will provide additional vehicles for our retail business, which on average are more profitable compared to the same vehicle acquired at auction, and expand our inventory selection. In addition, this in turn will grow our wholesale business.

• Optimize average days to sale.  Our goal is generally to optimize our inventory size relative to sales to achieve our desired average days to sale. Reductions in average days to sale lead to fewer vehicle price reductions, and therefore higher average selling prices, all other factors being equal. Higher average selling prices in turn lead to higher gross profit per unit sold, all other factors being equal.

• Leverage existing inspection and reconditioning infrastructure. As we scale, we intend to more fully utilize the capacity at our existing IRCs and auction locations, which collectively have capacity to inspect and recondition approximately 1.5 million vehicles per year at full utilization.

• Expand our logistics network. As we scale, we intend to further expand our in-house logistics network to transport cars to our IRCs or other sites after acquisition from customers or wholesale auctions.

• Increase conversion on existing products.   We plan to continue to improve our website to highlight the benefits of our complementary product offerings, including financing, complementary products, and trade-ins.

• Add new products and services.   We plan to utilize our online sales platform to offer additional complementary products and services to our customers.

• Increase monetization of our finance receivables. We plan to continue selling finance receivables in securitization transactions and otherwise expand our base of financial partners who purchase the finance receivables originated on our platform to reduce our effective cost of funds.

• Optimize purchasing and pricing. We are constantly improving the ways in which we predict customer demand, value vehicles sight unseen and optimize what we pay to acquire those vehicles. We also regularly test different pricing of our products, including vehicle sticker prices, trade-in and independent vehicle offers, and complementary product prices, and we believe we can improve by further optimizing prices over time.

Seasonality

We expect to experience seasonal and other fluctuations in our quarterly operating results, including as a result of macroeconomic conditions, which may not fully reflect the underlying performance of our business. Retail and wholesale used vehicle sales generally exhibit seasonality with sales peaking late in the first calendar quarter and diminishing through the rest

of the year, with the lowest relative level of vehicle sales expected to occur in the fourth calendar quarter. Due to our historical and current rapid growth, our overall sales patterns in the past have not always reflected the general seasonality of the used vehicle industry. However, as our business continues to mature, our results may become more reflective of typical market seasonality. Used vehicle prices also exhibit seasonality, with used vehicles generally depreciating at a faster rate in the fourth and first quarters of each year and a slower rate in the second and third quarters of each year, all other factors being equal.

Effects of Tariffs

The global trade environment is uncertain and rapidly evolving. We are continuing to monitor changes in tariff policy and the impact of these changes on our industry and the economy and seek to adjust to these changes as efficiently as possible. For the year ended December 31, 2025, tariffs did not materially impact our financial or operating results.

Investment in Growth

We maintain a primary focus on expanding the scale and reach of our business, while simultaneously driving operational efficiency, flexibility, and scalability through process and technology improvements that underpin sustainable, profitable growth. While we intend to become increasingly efficient over time, absent any material changes in macroeconomic conditions, we also anticipate that our operating expenses will increase as we grow retail units sold, wholesale units sold, and wholesale marketplace units transacted. There is no guarantee that we will be able to realize the desired return on our investments.

Relationships with Related Parties

For discussion about our relationships with related parties, refer to Note 6 — Related Party Transactions of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K and our Proxy Statement for our 2026 Annual Meeting of Stockholders to be filed with the SEC within 120 days after the end of the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

Key Operating Metrics

We regularly review a number of metrics, including the following key metrics, to evaluate our business, measure our progress and make strategic decisions. Our key operating metrics reflect the key drivers of our growth, including increasing brand awareness, enhancing the selection of vehicles we make available to our customers, and serving more of the U.S. population. Our key operating metrics also demonstrate our ability to translate these drivers into retail sales and to monetize these retail sales through a variety of product offerings.

Years Ended December 31,

Retail units sold

Average monthly unique visitors (in thousands)

Total website units

Total gross profit per unit

Total gross profit per unit, non-GAAP

Retail Units Sold

We define retail units sold as the number of vehicles sold to customers in a given period, including retail marketplace partner vehicles, net of returns under our seven-day return policy. We view retail units sold as a key measure of our growth for several reasons. First, retail units sold is the primary driver of our revenues and, indirectly, gross profit, since retail unit sales enable multiple complementary revenue streams, including financing, complementary products, and trade-ins. Second, growth in retail units sold increases the base of available customers for referrals and repeat sales. Third, growth in retail units sold is an indicator of our ability to successfully scale our logistics, fulfillment, and customer service operations.

Average Monthly Unique Visitors

We define a monthly unique visitor as an individual who has visited our website or iOS/Android application within a calendar month, based on data provided by Google Analytics. We calculate average monthly unique visitors as the sum of

monthly unique visitors in a given period, divided by the number of months in that period. We view average monthly unique visitors as a key indicator of the strength of our brand, the effectiveness of our advertising and merchandising campaigns, and consumer awareness of our brand.

Total Website Units

We define total website units as the number of vehicles listed on our website on the last day of a given reporting period, including vehicles available for sale, vehicles currently engaged in a purchase or reserved by a customer, and vehicles that can be reserved that generally have not yet completed the inspection and reconditioning process. We view total website units as a key measure of our growth. Growth in total website units increases the selection of vehicles available to our consumers, which we believe will allow us to increase the number of vehicles we sell over time. Moreover, growth in total website units indicates our ability to scale our vehicle purchasing, inspection and reconditioning operations. As part of our inventory strategy, over time we may choose not to expand total website units while continuing to grow sales, thereby improving other key operating metrics of the business.

Total Gross Profit per Unit

We define total gross profit per unit as the aggregate gross profit in a given period, divided by retail units sold in that period, including gross profit generated from the sale of retail vehicles, gains on the sales of loans originated to finance the vehicles, commissions on sales of VSCs, GAP waiver coverage and other complementary products, and gross profit generated from wholesale sales of vehicles. We operate an integrated business with the objective of increasing the number of retail units sold and total gross profit per unit. Gross profits generated from the sale of retail and wholesale units are interrelated. For example, our nationwide reconditioning and inspection centers are designed to produce vehicles for both retail and wholesale sales, our vehicle storage locations have shared parking for both retail and wholesale vehicles, and our integrated multi-vehicle logistics and last mile delivery network is operated in service of both retail and wholesale sales. Such interrelationships require us to share finite operational capacity and optimize joint decisions between retail and wholesale sales, in order to position us to achieve our objective of increasing total gross profit per unit. As a result, the inclusion of gross profit generated from wholesale sales of vehicles in total gross profit per unit reflects our integrated business model and the interrelationship between wholesale and retail vehicle sales. We believe the total gross profit per unit metrics provide investors with the greatest opportunity to view our performance through the same lens that our management does, and therefore assists investors to best evaluate our business and measure our progress.

Total Gross Profit per Unit, Non-GAAP

We define total gross profit per unit, non-GAAP as the aggregate gross profit, non-GAAP in a given period, divided by retail units sold in that period. Gross profit, non-GAAP is defined as gross profit plus depreciation and amortization expense in cost of sales, share-based compensation expense in cost of sales, and restructuring expense, minus revenue related to warrants to acquire common stock of other entities (the "Warrants") as discussed in Note 17 — Fair Value of Financial Instruments. Refer to "Non-GAAP Financial Measures" for more information, including the reconciliation of non-GAAP financial measures to the most directly comparable financial measures under generally accepted accounting principles in the United States ("GAAP").

Components of Results of Operations

Retail Vehicle Sales

Retail vehicle sales represent the aggregate sales of new and used vehicles to customers through our website. Revenue from retail vehicle sales is recognized upon delivery to the customer or pick up of the vehicle by the customer, and is reported net of a reserve for expected returns. Factors affecting retail vehicle sales revenue include the number of retail units sold and the average selling price of these vehicles. Changes in retail units sold are a much larger driver of changes in revenue than are changes in average selling price.

Retail vehicle sales also include shipping and delivery fees and service revenue from retail marketplace transactions, which are retail marketplace partner vehicles sold to customers through Carvana, where, depending on the structure of the partnership, we may recognize revenue on the sale of the vehicle on a net basis, rather than recognizing the full amount of the vehicle sales price as revenue. As a result, an increase in retail marketplace units sold as a percentage of total retail units sold could lead to a decrease in retail revenue per unit sold, and vice versa, other things being equal.

The number of retail vehicles we sell depends on the volume of traffic to our website, our inventory selection, the effectiveness of our branding and marketing efforts, the quality of our customers' purchase experience, our volume of referrals and repeat customers, the competitiveness of our pricing, competition from other car dealerships and general macroeconomic and used car industry conditions, including inflationary pressures and benchmark interest rates, as well as those conditions that could arise from the global trade and geopolitical environment. On a quarterly basis, the number of retail vehicles we sell is also affected by seasonality, with demand for retail vehicles generally reaching a seasonal high point late in the first quarter of each year, commensurate with the timing of tax refunds, and diminishing through the rest of the year, with the lowest relative level of retail vehicle sales generally expected to occur in the fourth calendar quarter.

Our revenue per retail unit depends on macroeconomic and used car industry conditions, including those that could arise from the global trade and geopolitical environment, the mix of vehicles we acquire, retail prices in our markets, our pricing strategy, our average days to sale, and the number of retail marketplace units sold. We may choose to shift our inventory mix to higher or lower cost vehicles, or to raise or lower our prices relative to market to take advantage of supply or demand imbalances, which could temporarily lead to average selling prices increasing or decreasing. We also generally expect lower average days to sale to be associated with higher retail average selling prices due to decreased vehicle depreciation prior to sale, all other factors being equal.

Wholesale Sales and Revenues

Wholesale sales and revenues include the aggregate proceeds we receive on vehicles we acquire and sell to wholesalers and wholesale marketplace revenues. The vehicles we sell to wholesalers are primarily acquired from customers who sell a vehicle to us without purchasing a retail vehicle and from our customers who trade in their existing vehicles when making a purchase from us. Factors affecting wholesale sales and revenues include the number of wholesale units sold and the average wholesale selling price of these vehicles, and macroeconomic conditions, including those that could arise from the global trade and geopolitical environment. The average selling price of our wholesale units is primarily driven by the mix of vehicles we sell to wholesalers, as well as general supply and demand conditions in the applicable wholesale vehicle market, including the level of depreciation in the wholesale vehicle market. Wholesale sales and revenues includes aggregate proceeds we receive on vehicles sold to DriveTime through competitive online auctions that are managed by an unrelated third party and through the Company's wholesale marketplace platform. Wholesale marketplace revenues include revenue earned from the sale of wholesale marketplace units by third-party sellers or Carvana to buyers through our wholesale marketplace platform, including auction fees and related services revenue.

Other Sales and Revenues

We generate other sales and revenues primarily through the sales of loans we originate and sell in securitization transactions or to financing partners, reported net of a reserve for expected repurchases, commissions we receive on VSCs, sales of GAP waiver coverage, and auto insurance, including Root Warrants we receive on sales of auto insurance.

We generally seek to sell the loans we originate to securitization trusts we sponsor and establish or to financing partners. The securitization trusts issue asset-backed securities, some of which are collateralized by the finance receivables that we sell to the securitization trusts. We also sell the loans we originate under committed forward-flow arrangements, including the Ally Master Purchase and Sale Agreement (as defined in Note 7 — Finance Receivable Sale Agreements of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K the "Ally MPSA"), and through fixed pool loan sales, with financing partners who generally acquire them at premium prices without recourse to us for their post-sale performance. Factors affecting revenue from these sales include the number of loans we originate, the average principal balance of the loans, the credit quality of the portfolio, the price at which we are able to sell them in securitization transactions or to financing partners, and economic conditions in the capital markets.

The number of loans we originate is driven by the number of retail vehicles sold and the percentage of our sales for which we provide financing, which is influenced by the financing terms we offer our customers relative to alternatives available to the customer. The average principal balance is driven primarily by the mix of vehicles we sell, since higher average selling prices typically mean higher average balances. The price at which we sell the loan is driven by the terms of our securitization transactions and forward-flow arrangement, applicable interest rates, and whether or not the loan includes GAP waiver coverage.

We receive a commission for selling VSCs that DriveTime Automotive Group, Inc. (together with its consolidated affiliates, collectively, "DriveTime") administers under a master dealer agreement with DriveTime. The commission revenue we recognize on VSCs depends on the number of retail units we sell, the conversion rate of VSCs on these sales, commission

rates we receive, VSC early cancellation frequency and product features. The GAP waiver coverage revenue we recognize depends on the number of retail units we sell, the number of customers that choose to finance their purchases with us, the frequency of GAP waiver coverage early cancellation, and the conversion rate of GAP waiver coverage on those sales.

Through our integrated auto insurance solution with Root, customers may conveniently access auto insurance directly from the Carvana e-commerce platform. We receive commissions and Root Warrants based on the Root insurance policies sold through the integrated platform. The commission revenue we recognize depends on the number of retail units we sell, the conversion rate of auto policies on those sales, commission rates we receive, and forecasted attrition. The revenue we recognize from Root Warrants as non-cash consideration depends on the probability of achieving certain auto policy sales thresholds within a specific timeline as well as our performance under the agreement with Root.

Cost of Sales

Cost of sales includes the cost to acquire, recondition, and transport vehicles associated with preparing them for resale, and wholesale marketplace cost of sales. Vehicle acquisition costs are driven by the mix of vehicles we acquire, the source of those vehicles, and supply-and-demand dynamics in the vehicle market. Reconditioning costs consist of direct costs, including parts, labor, and third-party repair expenses directly attributable to specific vehicles, as well as indirect costs, such as IRC and auction site overhead. Transportation costs consist of costs incurred to transport the vehicles from the point of acquisition to the IRC or other site. Cost of sales also includes any necessary adjustments to reflect vehicle inventory at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Wholesale marketplace cost of sales include costs related to the sale of wholesale marketplace units by third-party sellers through our wholesale marketplace platform, including labor, rent, depreciation and amortization.

Retail Vehicle Gross Profit

Retail vehicle gross profit is primarily the vehicle sales price minus our costs of sales associated with vehicles that we list and sell. Retail vehicle gross profit per unit is our aggregate retail vehicle gross profit in any measurement period divided by the number of retail units sold in that period.

Wholesale Gross Profit

Wholesale gross profit is the vehicle sales price minus our cost of sales associated with vehicles we sell to wholesalers, and wholesale marketplace revenues less wholesale marketplace cost of sales. Factors affecting wholesale gross profit include the number of wholesale units sold, the average wholesale selling price of these vehicles, the average acquisition price associated with these vehicles, the buyer and seller fees, and the number of wholesale marketplace units transacted.

Other Gross Profit

Other sales and revenues consist of 100% gross margin products for which gross profit equals revenue. Therefore, changes in gross profit and the associated drivers are identical to changes in revenues from these products and the associated drivers.

Selling, General and Administrative Expenses ("SG&A")

SG&A expenses include expenses associated with advertising and providing customer service to customers, including financing, title and registration and limited warranty services, operating our vending machines, hubs, physical auctions, logistics and fulfillment network and other corporate overhead expenses, including expenses associated with information technology, product development, engineering, legal, accounting, finance, and business development. SG&A expenses exclude the costs of inspecting and reconditioning vehicles and transporting vehicles from the point of acquisition to the IRC or other site, which are included in cost of sales, and payroll costs for our employees related to the development of software products for internal use, which are capitalized to software and depreciated over the estimated useful lives of the related assets.

Other Operating Expense, Net

Other operating expense, net primarily includes other general operating expenses such as gains or losses from disposals of long-lived assets.

Interest Expense, Net

Interest expense, net includes interest incurred on our various tranches of Senior Secured Notes and Senior Unsecured Notes, our Floor Plan Facility, and our Finance Receivable Facilities (each as defined in Note 9 — Debt Instruments of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K), as well as our finance leases, and long-term debt, which are used to fund general working capital, our inventory, our transportation fleet, and certain of our property and equipment. Interest expense, net also includes amortization of capitalized debt issuance costs, which is offset by amortization of debt premium and interest income earned on cash and cash equivalents. Interest expense, net excludes the interest incurred during various construction projects to build, upgrade or remodel certain facilities, which is capitalized to property and equipment and depreciated over the estimated useful lives of the related assets.

Other Expense (Income), Net

Other expense (income), net includes changes in fair value on our beneficial interests in securitizations, purchase price adjustment receivables, and fair value adjustments related to our warrants to acquire common stock of other entities as discussed in Note 17 — Fair Value of Financial Instruments of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Other expense (income), net also includes expense related to our Tax Receivable Agreement ("TRA") liability. Refer to Note 14 — Income Taxes of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further discussion of the TRA.

Income Tax (Benefit) Provision

Income taxes are recognized based upon our anticipated underlying annual blended federal and state income tax rates adjusted, as necessary, for any discrete tax matters occurring during the period. As the sole managing member of Carvana Group, LLC (together with its subsidiaries “Carvana Group”), Carvana Co. consolidates the financial results of Carvana Group. Carvana Group, LLC is treated as a partnership and therefore not subject to U.S. federal and most applicable state and local income tax purposes. Any taxable income or loss generated by Carvana Group is passed through to and included in the taxable income or loss of its members, including Carvana Co., based on its economic interest held in Carvana Group. Carvana Co. is taxed as a corporation and is subject to U.S. federal, state and local income taxes with respect to its allocable share of any taxable income or loss of Carvana Group, as well as any stand-alone income or loss generated by Carvana Co.

Results of Operations

Years Ended December 31,

Change

(dollars in millions, except per unit amounts)

Net sales and operating revenues:

Retail vehicle sales, net

Wholesale sales and revenues (1)

Other sales and revenues (2)

Total net sales and operating revenues

Gross profit:

Retail vehicle gross profit

Wholesale gross profit (1)

Other gross profit (2)

Total gross profit

Unit sales information:

Retail vehicle unit sales

Wholesale vehicle unit sales

Per unit revenue:

Retail vehicles

Wholesale vehicles (3)

Per retail unit gross profit:

Retail vehicle gross profit

Wholesale gross profit

Other gross profit

Total gross profit

Per wholesale unit gross profit:

Wholesale vehicle gross profit (4)

Wholesale marketplace:

Wholesale marketplace units transacted

Wholesale marketplace revenues

Wholesale marketplace gross profit (5)

(1) Includes $39 and $28, respectively, of wholesale sales and revenues from related parties.

(2) Includes $347 and $200, respectively, of other sales and revenues from related parties.

(3) Excludes wholesale marketplace revenues and wholesale marketplace units transacted.

(4) Excludes wholesale marketplace gross profit and wholesale marketplace units transacted.

(5) Includes $51 and $86, respectively, of depreciation and amortization expense.

Retail Vehicle Sales

Retail vehicle sales increased by $4.9 billion to $14.5 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to $9.7 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024. The increase in revenue was primarily due to an increase in the number of retail vehicles sold to 596,641 from 416,348 during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, and an increase in retail revenue per retail unit sold to $24,365 in the year ended December 31, 2025 from $23,252 in the prior year, primarily due to lower retail marketplace units sold as a share of total retail units sold.

Wholesale Sales and Revenues

Wholesale sales and revenues increased by $1.2 billion to $4.1 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $2.8 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024. The increase in revenue was primarily due to an increase in the number of wholesale units sold to 297,643 from 199,780 during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, driven by an increase in overall vehicle acquisitions compared to the prior year. Additionally, wholesale revenue per wholesale unit sold increased to $10,519 from $9,611 during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

Other Sales and Revenues

Other sales and revenues increased by $582 million to $1.7 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $1.2 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024. The increase was primarily due to an increase in gain on loan sales as a result of increased retail units sold, loan sale volume, and loan sale spreads, and to higher VSC conversion rates during the year ended December 31, 2025, partially offset by lower interest income on finance receivables held for sale.

Retail Vehicle Gross Profit

Retail vehicle gross profit increased by $599 million to $2.0 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $1.4 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024. This increase was driven primarily by an increase in the number of retail vehicles sold to 596,641 from 416,348 during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Additionally, retail vehicle gross profit per unit was approximately flat at $3,315 for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $3,312 for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Wholesale Gross Profit

Wholesale gross profit increased by $135 million to $481 million during the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $346 million during the year ended December 31, 2024. This increase was primarily driven by an increase in wholesale units sold to 297,643 from 199,780 during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, along with an increase in wholesale vehicle gross profit per wholesale unit to $1,015 from $996, respectively. The increase in wholesale units sold was primarily a result of an increase in overall vehicle acquisitions during the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to the year ended December 31, 2024. The increase in wholesale vehicle gross profit per wholesale unit was primarily a result of lower vehicle acquisition costs relative to sales prices during the year ended December 31, 2025. Additionally, the increase was driven by an increase in marketplace gross profit by $32 million to $179 million during the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $147 million during the year ended December 31, 2024, due to an increase in the number of wholesale marketplace units transacted to 1,006,551 from 955,802 during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

Other Gross Profit

Other sales and revenues consist of 100% gross margin products for which gross profit equals revenue. Therefore, changes in other gross profit and the associated drivers are identical to changes in other sales and revenues and the associated drivers.

Components of SG&A

Years Ended December 31,

(in millions)

Compensation and benefits (1)

Advertising

Market occupancy (2)

Logistics (3)

Other (4)

Total

(1) Compensation and benefits includes all payroll and related costs, including benefits, payroll taxes, and equity-based compensation, except those related to preparing vehicles for sale, which are included in cost of sales, and those related to the

development of software products for internal use, which are capitalized to software and depreciated over the estimated useful lives of the related assets.

(2) Market occupancy costs includes occupancy costs of our vending machine and hubs. It excludes occupancy costs related to reconditioning vehicles which are included in cost of sales and the portion related to corporate occupancy which are included in other costs.

(3) Logistics includes fuel, maintenance and depreciation related to operating our own transportation fleet, and third-party transportation fees, except the portion related to inbound transportation, which is included in cost of sales.

(4) Other costs include all other selling, general and administrative expenses such as IT expenses, corporate occupancy, professional services and insurance, limited warranty, and title and registration.

Selling, general and administrative expenses increased by $434 million to $2.3 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to $1.9 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024, primarily due to higher employee headcount, advertising, and other SG&A expenses, primarily associated with higher retail units sold.

Other Operating Expense, Net

Other operating expense, net decreased by $9 million to $3 million during the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to $12 million during the year ended December 31, 2024, due to lower disposals of long-lived assets.

Interest Expense, Net

Interest expense, net decreased by $146 million to $505 million during the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to $651 million during the year ended December 31, 2024, primarily due to lower interest on the Senior Secured Notes as a result of the repurchases and redemptions of the 2028 Senior Secured Notes and 2025 Senior Unsecured Notes, our election to pay cash interest on the 2028 and 2030 Senior Secured Notes, higher interest income, and lower interest on the finance receivable facilities and floor plan facility.

Loss on Debt Extinguishment

Loss on debt extinguishment was $16 million and $12 million during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. During the year ended December 31, 2025, $611 million of principal amount of 2028 Senior Secured Notes were voluntarily repurchased and redeemed for $633 million, which included $7 million of accrued interest and $1 million of pro-rata write-offs of unamortized debt issuance costs and unamortized premium. During the year ended December 31, 2024, $470 million of principal amount of 2028 Senior Secured Notes were voluntarily repurchased and redeemed for $492 million, which included $12 million of accrued interest and $2 million of pro-rata write-offs of unamortized debt issuance costs and unamortized premium.

Other Expense (Income), Net

Other expense (income), net was an expense of $2.3 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025 and was primarily due to $2.2 billion of TRA expense and a $64 million decrease in the fair value of Root Warrants, partially offset by a $12 million increase in the fair value of beneficial interests in securitizations. Other expense (income), net was income of $73 million during the year ended December 31, 2024 and was primarily due to a $115 million increase in the fair value of Root Warrants and a $23 million increase in the fair value of beneficial interests in securitizations, partially offset by $67 million of TRA expense.

Income Tax (Benefit) Provision

Income tax (benefit) provision was a benefit of $2.8 billion during the year ended December 31, 2025 and was primarily due to the release of our valuation allowance against our deferred tax assets. We released $2.2 billion of our valuation allowance during the year ended December 31, 2025 and recorded $547 million of income tax benefit as a result of current year activity. Income tax (benefit) provision was a benefit of $4 million during the year ended December 31, 2024. For additional information, see Note 14 —Income Taxes.

Non-GAAP Financial Measures

To supplement the consolidated financial statements, which are prepared and presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP, we also present the following non-GAAP measures: Adjusted EBITDA; Adjusted EBITDA margin; Gross profit, non-GAAP;

Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP; SG&A expenses, non-GAAP; and Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP.

Adjusted EBITDA; Adjusted EBITDA margin; Gross profit, non-GAAP; Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP; SG&A expenses, non-GAAP; and Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP

Adjusted EBITDA; Adjusted EBITDA margin; Gross profit, non-GAAP; Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP; SG&A expenses, non-GAAP; and Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP are supplemental measures of operating performance that do not represent and should not be considered an alternative to net income, gross profit, or SG&A expenses, as determined by GAAP.

Adjusted EBITDA is defined as net income plus (minus) income tax (benefit) provision, interest expense, net, other operating expense, net, other expense (income), net, depreciation and amortization expense in cost of sales and SG&A expenses, share-based compensation expense in cost of sales and SG&A expenses, loss (gain) on debt extinguishment, and restructuring expense, minus revenue related to our warrants. Adjusted EBITDA margin is Adjusted EBITDA as a percentage of total revenues.

Gross profit, non-GAAP is defined as GAAP gross profit plus depreciation and amortization expense in cost of sales, and share-based compensation expense in cost of sales, minus revenue related to our warrants. Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP is Gross profit, non-GAAP divided by retail vehicle unit sales.

SG&A expenses, non-GAAP is defined as GAAP SG&A expenses minus depreciation and amortization expense in SG&A expenses, share-based compensation expense in SG&A expenses, and restructuring expense in SG&A expenses. Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP is SG&A expenses, non-GAAP divided by retail vehicle unit sales.

We use these non-GAAP measures to measure the operating performance of our business as a whole and relative to our total revenues and retail vehicle unit sales. We believe that these metrics are useful measures to us and to our investors because they exclude certain financial, capital structure, and non-cash items that we do not believe directly reflect our core operations and may not be indicative of our recurring operations, in part because they may vary widely across time and within our industry independent of the performance of our core operations. We believe that excluding these items enables us to more effectively evaluate our performance period-over-period and relative to our competitors. Adjusted EBITDA; Adjusted EBITDA margin; Gross profit, non-GAAP; Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP; SG&A expenses, non-GAAP; and Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP may not be comparable to similarly titled measures provided by other companies due to potential differences in methods of calculations.

A reconciliation of Adjusted EBITDA to net income, Gross profit, non-GAAP to gross profit, and SG&A expenses, non-GAAP to SG&A expenses, which are the most directly comparable GAAP measures, and calculations of Adjusted EBITDA margin, Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP, and Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP is as follows:

Years Ended December 31,

(dollars in millions, except per unit amounts)

Net income

Income tax (benefit) provision

Interest expense, net

Other operating expense, net

Other expense (income), net

Depreciation and amortization expense in cost of sales

Depreciation and amortization expense in SG&A expenses

Share-based compensation expense in cost of sales

Share-based compensation expense in SG&A expenses

Warrant revenue

Loss (gain) on debt extinguishment

Restructuring expense

Adjusted EBITDA

Total revenues

Net income margin

Adjusted EBITDA margin

Gross profit

Depreciation and amortization expense in cost of sales

Share-based compensation expense in cost of sales

Warrant revenue

Gross profit, non-GAAP

Retail vehicle unit sales

Total gross profit per retail unit

Total gross profit per retail unit, non-GAAP

SG&A expenses

Depreciation and amortization expense in SG&A expenses

Share-based compensation expense in SG&A expenses

Restructuring expense in SG&A expenses

SG&A expenses, non-GAAP

Retail vehicle unit sales

Total SG&A expenses per retail unit

Total SG&A expenses per retail unit, non-GAAP

Liquidity and Capital Resources

General

We generate cash from the sale of retail vehicles, wholesale vehicles, loans we originate, and VSCs, GAP waiver coverage, and other complementary products. We generate additional cash flows through our financing activities including our short-term revolving inventory and finance receivable facilities and real estate and equipment financing, the issuance of debt securities, and new issuances of equity. Going forward, we expect to fund growth and expansion primarily through cash generated from operating activities, while retaining the option to utilize financing activities as a supplemental source if desired. We expect our primary sources of cash to continue to be sufficient to fund our operating activities and cash commitments for investing and financing activities for at least the next 12 months.

Our ability to service our debt and fund working capital, capital expenditures, and business development efforts in the long-term depends on our ability to generate cash from operating and financing activities, which is subject to our future operating performance, as well as to general economic, financial, competitive, legislative, regulatory, and other conditions, some of which are beyond our control. Our future capital requirements depend on many factors, including our ability to generate cash from operating activities, our ability to refinance indebtedness, our ability to obtain supplemental liquidity through debt, equity, including the issuance of equity pursuant to our ATM Program, if used, strategic relationships or other arrangements on terms available or acceptable to us, our rate of revenue growth, our build-outs of ADESA auction sites to provide IRC capabilities, the timing and extent of our spending to support our technology and software development efforts, our advertising spend, and increased population coverage. If we need to obtain supplemental liquidity, there can be no assurance that financing alternatives will be available in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us in the future.

On July 19, 2023, the Company entered into an agreement (the "Distribution Agreement") to establish an ATM Program, and on July 31, 2024, the Company refreshed the ATM Program by entering into an Amended and Restated Distribution Agreement with Barclays Capital Inc., Citigroup Global Markets Inc., Moelis & Company LLC, and Virtu Americas LLC. On February 19, 2025, the Company further refreshed the ATM Program by entering into a Second Amended and Restated Distribution Agreement with Barclays Capital Inc., Citigroup Global Markets Inc., and Virtu Americas LLC. Under the ATM Program, the Company could sell up to the greater of (i) shares of Class A common stock representing an aggregate offering price of $1.0 billion, or (ii) an aggregate of 21 million shares of Class A common stock, from time to time. As of December 31, 2025, $461 million of aggregate offering price remained available to be sold under the ATM Program. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we issued 1.5 million shares of Class A common stock at a weighted-average issuance price per share of $364.93, for gross proceeds of $539 million. However, there can be no assurance that we will sell further shares of Class A common stock through the ATM Program, or otherwise.

Subject to the restrictions in the indentures governing the Senior Secured Notes, we or our affiliates have and may again, at any time, and from time to time, repurchase shares of our Class A common stock, our Senior Unsecured Notes, our Senior Secured Notes, or any other securities we may issue, from time to time, in open market transactions, privately negotiated transactions, in exchange for property or other securities or otherwise. In addition, subject to the restrictions in the indentures governing the Senior Secured Notes and the terms of such notes and our Senior Unsecured Notes, we may again, redeem all or portions of such notes. During the year ended December 31, 2025, as permitted by the indenture, $611 million of principal amount of 2028 Senior Secured Notes were voluntarily repurchased and redeemed for $633 million, which included $7 million of accrued interest and $1 million of pro-rata write-offs of unamortized debt issuance costs and unamortized premium. Further, during the year ended December 31, 2025, the Company repaid $98 million of principal amount of the 2025 Senior Unsecured Notes upon maturity. Any additional repurchase or redemption decisions will be made after consideration of market conditions and liquidity needs and will be upon such terms and at such prices as we determine appropriate or as required under the indenture governing the applicable notes. However, there is no guarantee that a repurchase or redemption will take place.

Liquidity Resources

We had the following committed liquidity resources, secured debt capacity, and other unpledged assets available as of December 31, 2025 and 2024:

December 31,

(in millions)

Cash and cash equivalents

Availability under short-term revolving facilities (1)

Committed liquidity resources available

Super senior debt capacity

Pari passu senior debt capacity

Unpledged beneficial interests in securitizations

Total liquidity resources

(1) Based on pledging all eligible vehicles and finance receivables under the Floor Plan Facility and Finance Receivables Facilities, excluding the impact to restricted cash requirements.

Our total liquidity potential is composed of cash and cash equivalents, availability under existing credit facilities, additional capacity under the indentures governing our Senior Secured Notes, which allow us to incur additional debt that can be senior or pari passu in lien priority as to the collateral securing the obligations under the Senior Secured Notes, and additional unpledged securities that can be financed using traditional asset-based financing sources.

Cash and cash equivalents includes cash deposits and highly liquid investment instruments with original maturities of three months or less, such as money market funds.

Availability under short-term revolving facilities is the available amount we can borrow under the Floor Plan Facility and Finance Receivable Facilities based on the value of pledgeable vehicle inventory and finance receivables on our balance sheet on the period end date. Availability under short-term revolving facilities is distinct from the total commitment amount of these facilities because it represents the amount we are able to borrow as of period end, rather than committed future amounts that could be borrowed to finance future additional assets. Effective November 1, 2023, we amended our vehicle inventory Floor Plan Facility to resize the line of credit to $1.5 billion through April 30, 2025 and further renewed until April 30, 2027 on April 29, 2025. See Note 9 — Debt Instruments of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the short-term revolving facilities had a total commitment of $5.0 billion and $4.2 billion, respectively, an outstanding balance of $58 million and $67 million, respectively, and unused capacity of $4.9 billion and $4.1 billion, respectively.

On October 20, 2025, the Company entered into a loan and security agreement (the "Loan Agreement") with Citizens Bank, N.A. ("Citizens Bank"), which provides for up to $250 million in aggregate principal amount of loans to finance certain equipment for its transportation fleet. All loans extended under the Loan Agreement are secured by a first priority lien on the transportation fleet and will mature within four to seven years depending on the attributes of the financed equipment. At maturity, a final payment of unamortized principal will be due to Citizens Bank. These outstanding loans will bear interest at a rate based on the applicable SOFR swap rate, with tenors ranging from two and a half to four years, plus an applicable margin ranging from 2.80% to 2.95% depending on the maturity of the loan. The Company has the option to prepay the outstanding balances of the loans prior to the Maturity Date.

Super senior debt capacity and pari passu senior debt capacity represents basket capacity to incur additional debt that could be senior or pari passu in lien priority as to the collateral securing the obligations under the Senior Secured Notes, subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the indentures governing the Senior Secured Notes. The availability of such additional sources depends on many factors and there can be no assurance that financing alternatives will be available to us in the future.

Unpledged beneficial interests in securitizations includes retained beneficial interests in securitizations that have not been previously pledged or sold. We historically have financed the majority of our retained beneficial interests in securitizations and expect to continue to do so in the future.

On October 28, 2025, the Ally MPSA was amended to, among other things, increase the commitment by Ally to purchase up to $6.0 billion of principal balance of finance receivables between October 28, 2025, and October 27, 2026. See Note 7 — Finance Receivable Sale Agreements, included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

On October 24, 2025, we entered into a definitive loan purchase agreement with an independent, third-party purchaser for the sale of up to $4.0 billion of principal balance of finance receivables through October 2027. Also, on October 24, 2025, we entered into a separate definitive loan purchase agreement with another independent, third-party purchaser for the sale of up to $4.0 billion of principal balance of finance receivables through December 2027. In addition, on December 5, 2025, we entered into a third definitive loan purchase agreement with a third independent, third-party purchaser for the sale of up to $4.0 billion of principal balance of finance receivables through December 2027. These agreements formalize existing relationships with loan purchasers and establish defined expectations for loan sale volume and sale procedures throughout the respective agreement periods.

During the year ended December 31, 2025, the Company separately acquired five franchise dealerships for total purchase consideration of $160 million, comprised of $101 million in cash and $59 million in trade vehicle floor plan payables. Further, in connection with these franchise dealership acquisitions, the Company entered into a Master Loan and Security Agreement (the "Trade Floor Plan Facility") with Stellantis Financial Services, Inc. ("SFS") to finance certain of our purchases of new vehicle inventory, and such financed inventory secures the Trade Floor Plan Facility. The line of credit under the Trade Floor Plan Facility is $214 million, allocated among sub-advance limits for each dealership location and type of vehicle inventory.

To optimize our cost of capital, in any given period we may choose not to maximize borrowings on our short-term revolving facilities, maximize revolving commitment size, or immediately sale-leaseback real estate; and we may also choose to retain beneficial interests in securitizations for varying amounts of time. This has the benefit of reducing interest expense and debt issuance costs and providing flexibility to minimize financing costs over time.

We consider our total liquidity resources as an input into our planning. In general, changes in total liquidity resources fall into two broad categories: changes due to current business operations and changes due to investments in automotive retail assets.

Changes in liquidity due to current business operations include impacts from fluctuations in Adjusted EBITDA, non-real estate capital expenditures, including technology, furniture, fixtures, and equipment, and changes in traditional working capital, including accounts receivable, accounts payable, accrued expenses, and other miscellaneous assets and liabilities.

In the ordinary course of business, we sponsor and engage in securitization transactions to sell our finance receivables to a diverse pool of investors. These securitizations involve unconsolidated variable interest entities in which we retain at least 5% of the credit risk of the underlying finance receivable by holding at least 5% of the notes and certificates issued by these entities. We are exposed to market risk in the securitization market. See Note 8 — Securitizations and Variable Interest Entities, included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further discussion regarding our transactions with unconsolidated variable interest entities.

In addition, we also invest in and generate several types of assets, including vehicle inventory, finance receivables, retained beneficial interests in securitizations, and real estate. To maximize capital efficiency, we generally seek to finance these assets with matched sources of asset-based financing, including short-term revolving facilities for vehicle inventory and finance receivables, beneficial interests financing for retained beneficial interests in securitizations, and sale-leaseback or other real estate financing for IRCs and vending machines. We have historically used these sources of financing to finance our investment in these assets and expect to continue to do so in the future.

As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, our outstanding principal amount of indebtedness was $5.0 billion and $5.5 billion, respectively, summarized in the table below. See Note 9 — Debt Instruments of our consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further information on our debt.

December 31,

(in millions)

Asset-Based Financing:

Floor plan facility

Financing of beneficial interests in securitizations

Real estate financing

Transportation fleet financing

Total asset-based financing

Senior Secured Notes (1)

Senior Unsecured Notes

Total debt

Less: current portion

Less: unamortized debt issuance costs (2)

Plus: unamortized premium (3)

Total included in long-term debt, net

(1) Includes zero and $105 million of accrued paid-in-kind ("PIK") interest as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Accrued PIK interest increases the principal amount of Senior Secured Notes on each semi-annual interest payment date.

(2) The unamortized debt issuance costs related to long-term debt are presented as a reduction of the carrying amount of the corresponding liabilities on the accompanying consolidated balance sheets. Unamortized debt issuance costs related to revolving debt arrangements are presented within other assets on our consolidated balance sheets and not included here.

(3) The unamortized premium relates to a portion of the notes exchange offers completed in September 2023 which were accounted for as a debt modification.

Cash Flows

The following table presents a summary of our consolidated cash flows from operating, investing, and financing activities for the years ended December 31, 2025, and 2024:

Years Ended December 31,

(in millions)

Net cash provided by operating activities

Net cash used in investing activities

Net cash (used in) provided by financing activities

Net increase in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash

Cash, cash equivalents, and restricted cash at beginning of period

Cash, cash equivalents, and restricted cash at end of period

Operating Activities

Our primary sources of operating cash flows result from the sales of retail vehicles, wholesale vehicles, loans we originate, and VSCs, GAP waiver coverage, and other complementary products. Our primary uses of cash from operating activities are purchases of inventory, personnel-related expenses, and cash used to acquire customers. Cash provided by operating activities was $1.0 billion and $918 million for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, an increase in cash provided by operating activities of $118 million, primarily due to an improvement in operating results, partially offset by increased vehicle inventory acquisitions during the year ended December 31, 2025, together with an increase in interest paid due to our election to pay cash interest on the 2028 and 2030 Senior Secured Notes.

Investing Activities

Our primary use of cash for investing activities is purchases of property and equipment. Cash used in investing activities was $230 million and $13 million during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, an increase in cash used in investing activities of $217 million, primarily due to the acquisition of five franchise dealerships during the year ended December 31, 2025, together with increased purchases of property and equipment.

Financing Activities

Cash flows from financing activities primarily relate to our short and long-term debt activity, including proceeds from and payments on our short-term revolving facilities. Cash used in and provided by financing activities was $137 million and $261 million during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, an increase in cash used in financing activities of $398 million primarily driven by the repurchases and redemption of certain of our Senior Secured Notes and payment at maturity of our 2025 Senior Unsecured Notes, and lower net proceeds from our ATM Program during the year ended December 31, 2025, partially offset by lower payments on short-term revolving facilities relative to proceeds from those facilities.

Contractual Obligations and Commitments

We are party to contractual obligations involving commitments to third parties for which we believe we have sufficient liquidity to fund our operations and meet our obligations as they come due. These contractual obligations impact our liquidity and future capital requirements and primarily consist of long-term debt and related interest payments, leases, short-term revolving facilities, financing of beneficial interests in securitizations, and other purchase obligations and commitments. See Note 7 — Finance Receivable Sale Agreements, Note 9 — Debt Instruments, Note 15 — Leases, and Note 16 — Commitments and Contingencies of the consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, for more information related to these contractual obligations and commitments.

Fair Value Measurements

We report money market securities, certain receivables, warrants to acquire common stock and beneficial interests in securitizations at fair value. See Note 17 — Fair Value of Financial Instruments, included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statement and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, which is incorporated into this item by reference.

Critical Accounting Estimates

The discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations are based upon our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of these financial statements requires management to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, revenue and expenses and related disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of our financial statements. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions, impacting our reported results of operations and financial condition.

Certain accounting policies involve significant judgments and assumptions by management, which have a material impact on the carrying value of assets and liabilities and the recognition of income and expenses. The estimates and assumptions used by management are based on historical experience and other factors, which are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances. The significant accounting estimates which we believe are the most critical to aid in fully understanding and evaluating our reported financial results and have had or are reasonably likely to have a material impact on our financial condition or results of operation are described below. Refer to Note 2 — Summary of Significant Accounting Policies of the consolidated financial statements included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, for more detailed information regarding our critical accounting policies.

Revenue Recognition

We sell retail vehicles directly to our customers through our website. We recognize revenue upon delivery to the customer or pick up of the vehicle by a customer at the agreed upon purchase price stated in the contract, including any delivery charges, less an estimate for returns. Our return policy allows customers to initiate a return during the first seven days after delivery. Estimates for returns are based on an analysis of historical experience, trends and sales data. Changes in these estimates are reflected as an adjustment to revenue in the period identified.

Customers purchasing retail vehicles from us may enter into contracts for VSCs and, if they finance with us, GAP waiver coverage. The prices of VSCs and GAP waiver coverage are set forth in each contract. We sell and receive a commission on VSCs under a master dealer agreement with DriveTime, pursuant to which we sell VSCs that DriveTime administers and is the obligor. We receive a commission on GAP waiver coverage contracts where the administrator of the contract is obligated to reimburse the holder of the underlying finance receivable for a balance that is in excess of the value of the financed vehicle in the event of a total loss. We recognize commission revenue at the time of sale, net of a reserve for estimated contract cancellations. Our risk related to contract cancellations is limited to the commissions that we receive. Cancellations fluctuate depending on the customer-financing default or prepayment rates, and shifts in customer behavior, including those related to changes in the coverage or term of the product. To the extent that actual experience differs from historical trends, there could be significant adjustments to our contract cancellation reserves. The reserve for cancellations of VSCs and GAP waiver coverage is estimated based upon historical experience and recent trends and is reflected as a reduction of other sales and revenues. Changes in these estimates are reflected as an adjustment to revenue in the period identified.

Under the master dealer agreement with DriveTime, we are also contractually entitled to receive profit-sharing revenues based on the performance of the VSCs once a required claims period has passed. This is a form of variable consideration we recognize as revenue to the extent that it is probable that it will not result in a significant revenue reversal. We apply the expected value method, utilizing expected VSC performance based on historical claims and cancellation data from our customers, as well as other qualitative assumptions to estimate the amount we expect to receive. We reassess the estimate each reporting period with any changes reflected as an adjustment to other sales and revenues in the period identified. Profit-sharing payments will begin when the underlying VSCs reach a specified level of claims history.

Finance Receivables

Finance receivables include installment contracts we originate to facilitate vehicle sales. We classify these receivables as held for sale, as we do not intend to hold the finance receivables we originate to maturity. We typically sell the finance receivables we originate. We record a valuation allowance to report finance receivables at the lower of unpaid principal balance or fair value. To determine the fair value of finance receivables we utilize industry-standard modeling, such as discounted cash flow analysis, factoring in our historical experience, the credit quality of the underlying receivables, loss trends and recovery rates, as well as the overall economic environment. For purposes of determining the valuation allowance, finance receivables are evaluated collectively to determine the allowance as they represent a large group of smaller-balance homogeneous loans. To the extent that actual experience differs from historical trends, there could be significant adjustments to our valuation allowance. Principal balances of finance receivables are charged-off when we are unable to sell the finance receivable and the related vehicle has been repossessed and liquidated or the receivable has otherwise been deemed uncollectible. The estimates and trends used have historically been effective in our determination of our valuation allowance.

Beneficial Interests in Securitizations

The Company's beneficial interests in securitizations include rated notes and certificates and other assets, all of which are classified as Level 3 due to the lack of observable market data. The Company determines the fair value of its rated notes based on non-binding broker quotes. The non-binding broker quotes are based on models that consider the prevailing interest rates, recent market transactions, and current business conditions. The Company determines the fair value of its certificates and other assets using a combination of non-binding market quotes and internally developed discounted cash flow models. The discounted cash flow models use discount rates based on prevailing interest rates and the characteristics of the specific instruments. See Note 17 — Fair Value of Financial Instruments, included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further detail on the discount rates.

Significant increases or decreases in the inputs to the models could result in a significantly higher or lower fair value measurement. The Company elected the fair value option on its beneficial interests in securitizations, which allows it to recognize changes in the fair value of these assets in the period the fair value changes resulting in a gain or loss in that period.

Valuation of Inventory

Vehicle inventory consists of used vehicles, primarily acquired directly from customers and at auction. Direct and indirect vehicle reconditioning costs including parts and labor, inbound transportation costs and other incremental costs are capitalized as a component of inventory. Inventory is stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Vehicle inventory cost is determined by specific identification. Net realizable value is the estimated selling price less costs to complete, dispose and transport the vehicles. Selling prices are derived from historical data and trends, such as sales price and inventory turn times of similar vehicles, as well as independent market resources. Each reporting period we recognize any necessary adjustments to

reflect vehicle inventory at the lower of cost or net realizable value through cost of sales. To the extent that there are significant changes to estimated vehicle selling prices or decreases in demand for used vehicles, there could be significant adjustments to reflect our inventory at net realizable value.

Income Taxes

We account for income taxes pursuant to the asset and liability method, which requires the recognition of deferred income tax assets and liabilities related to the expected future tax consequences arising from temporary differences between the carrying amounts and tax bases of assets and liabilities based on enacted statutory tax rates applicable to the periods in which the temporary differences are expected to reverse. Any effects of changes in income tax rates or laws are included in income tax expense in the period of enactment. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we performed an assessment of the recoverability of deferred tax assets. This assessment considered both positive and negative evidence related to the likelihood of realization of the deferred tax assets. These objective and subjective factors included, but were not limited to, a recent history of sustained profitability and utilization of deferred tax assets, which is objective and verifiable, and anticipated future earnings, including consideration of historical and future excess tax benefits related to equity-based compensation. After evaluating the weight of all available evidence, we determined, based on the accounting standards applicable to such assessment, that there was sufficient evidence as a result of the aforementioned considerations to conclude it was more likely than not that our deferred tax assets will be realizable. As such, during the year ended December 31, 2025, we (i) released $2.2 billion of our valuation allowance through income tax (benefit) provision in the accompanying consolidated statements of operations; (ii) established $277 million of deferred tax assets related to increases in tax basis in Carvana Group through additional paid-in capital in the accompanying consolidated statements of stockholders' equity (deficit); (iii) and recorded $547 million of income tax benefit as a result of current year activity through income tax (benefit) provision in the accompanying consolidated statements of operations. We will continue to monitor the need for a valuation allowance against our deferred tax assets.

Tax Receivable Agreement

Our TRA liability is determined and recorded in accordance with ASC 450, Contingencies , which requires the determination of whether the liability is both probable and reasonably estimable. The primary consideration is our usage of deferred tax assets, for which we have utilized and expect to utilize in the future and therefore no longer have a full valuation allowance applied against them. As such and in connection with our conclusion that it was more likely than not that our deferred tax assets subject to the TRA would be realized, we determined it was probable our remaining TRA liability related to the tax savings we expect to realize from utilization of such deferred tax assets will be paid. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we recorded TRA expense of $2.2 billion which was recorded to other expense (income), net in the accompanying consolidated statements of operations. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, we recorded a TRA liability of $2.3 billion and $82 million, respectively, of which $1.7 billion and $61 million, respectively, is due to related parties. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, $37 million and $17 million, respectively, is included in other current liabilities and $2.2 billion and $65 million, respectively, are included in other liabilities on the accompanying consolidated balance sheets.