OB Outbrain Inc. - 10-K

Item 1A. Risk Factors

An investment in our shares of Common Stock involves a high degree of risk. You should consider carefully the risks described below and all other information contained in this Report, including in the “Note About Forward-Looking Statements,” the section titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” (“MD&A”), and our audited consolidated financial statements and the accompanying notes included elsewhere in this Report. If any of the following risks actually occur, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. In that event, the trading price of our shares of Common Stock would likely decline and you might lose all or part of your investment.

Risk Factor Summary

The following is a summary of some of the principal risks we face:

• Our ability to successfully integrate the two companies or manage the combined business effectively;

• Our revenue and results of operations are highly dependent on overall advertising demand and spending and traffic generated by our media partners;

• Our ability to continue to innovate and the adoption of our solutions by advertisers and media partners;

• Our sales and marketing efforts may require significant investments and involve long sales cycles;

• The digital advertising industry is intensely competitive and we must effectively compete against current and future competitors;

• The potential impact of AI on our industry, including evolving laws and regulations regarding generative AI content, and our need to invest in AI-based solutions;

• The Company’s ability to attract and retain customers, management and other key personnel;

• The volatility of the market price of our Common Stock and our ability to satisfy the continued listing requirements of The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC, including the potential adverse effects on market liquidity and share price if our Common Stock is delisted;

• A failure to grow or to manage growth effectively may cause the quality of our platform and solutions to suffer;

• We may need to raise additional financing in the future to fund our operations or to service our existing indebtedness, which may not be available to us on favorable terms or at all;

• Loss of media partners could have a significant impact on our revenue and results of operations;

• Our ability to maintain the integrity of our platform and prevent invalid, low quality, or other non-human traffic;

• Our research and development efforts may not meet the demands of a rapidly evolving technology market;

• The failure of our recommendation engine and algorithms to accurately predict outcomes;

• Limitations on our ability to collect, use, and disclose data to deliver advertisements;

• Our ability to extend our reach into evolving digital media platforms;

• Our ability to maintain and scale our technology platform;

• Growth in our business may place demands on our infrastructure and resources;

• Our ability to realize anticipated benefits and synergies of the Acquisition;

• Unexpected costs, charges or expenses resulting from the Acquisition;

• Our internal control over financial reporting may not meet the standards required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act;

• Factors affecting advertising demand, such as unfavorable economic conditions, geopolitical concerns, and the impact of the U.S. government shutdown;

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• Conditions in Israel and the Middle East, including ongoing conflicts and potential escalations involving surrounding nations;

• Our ability to maintain our revenues or profitability despite quarterly fluctuations in our results;

• The challenges of compliance with differing and changing regulatory requirements, particularly with respect to privacy and data protection;

• Our failure or the failure of third parties to protect our sites, networks and systems against security breaches, or otherwise to protect the confidential information of us or our partners;

• Outages or disruptions that impact us or our service providers, resulting from cyber incidents, or failures or loss of our infrastructure;

• Significant fluctuations in currency exchange rates;

• Political and regulatory risks in the various markets in which we operate;

• The outcome of legal proceedings, which we are subject to from time to time, including intellectual property, commercial and privacy disputes; and

• The timing and execution of any cost-saving measures and the impact on our business or strategy.

Risks Related to the Integration of Outbrain and Legacy Teads

Our integration of the businesses of Outbrain and Legacy Teads has been, and may continue to be, more difficult, costly and time-consuming than expected, which may materially and adversely affect the value of the Common Stock.

We are continuing to combine the predecessor businesses of Outbrain and Legacy Teads in a manner that permits anticipated benefits to be realized. The combination of two large, previously independent companies is a complex, costly and time-consuming process. As a result, the Company is currently devoting significant management attention and resources to integrating the business practices and operations of Outbrain and Legacy Teads. The integration process has been, and may continue to be, disruptive to our business and, if the integration is ultimately implemented ineffectively, it could preclude realization of the full benefits previously expected by us from the Acquisition. Any failure of the Company to meet the challenges involved in successfully integrating the management and certain predecessor operations of Outbrain and Legacy Teads or otherwise to realize the anticipated benefits of the Acquisition could cause an interruption of the activities of the Company and could materially and adversely affect our results of operations. The overall integration has resulted in, and may continue to create, unanticipated problems and costs, including liabilities, competitive responses, and potential loss of client relationships. These factors, alongside the diversion of management’s attention, could materially harm our business and cause the price of the Common Stock to further decline. The difficulties of combining the operations of Outbrain and Legacy Teads include, among others:

• managing a significantly larger company;

• coordinating geographically dispersed organizations;

• the potential diversion of management focus and resources from other strategic opportunities and from operational matters;

• aligning and executing the strategy of the Company;

• retaining existing customers and attracting new customers;

• maintaining employee morale and retaining key management and other employees;

• integrating two business cultures, which may prove to be incompatible;

• the possibility of faulty assumptions underlying expectations regarding the integration of certain operations;

• consolidating certain corporate and administrative infrastructure and eliminating duplicative operations;

• challenges inherent in ensuring compliance with applicable laws and regulations across a greater number of jurisdictions; and

• unforeseen expenses or delays associated with the Acquisition.

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Many of these factors are outside of our control and any one of these factors could result in increased costs, decreased revenues and diversion of management’s time and energy, which could materially and adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations. As discussed above, even if the prior operations of Outbrain and Legacy Teads are integrated successfully, we may not realize the full benefits of the Acquisition, including the synergies, cost savings or revenue or growth opportunities that we expect or in the timeframe anticipated.

The Company may become involved in securities litigation, stockholder derivative litigation, or other legal proceedings in connection with the Acquisition.

Significant business transactions, such as the Acquisition, frequently result in securities litigation, stockholder derivative claims, or other legal proceedings alleging breaches of fiduciary duty, disclosure failures, or other grievances related to the transaction. The outcome of any such potential litigation is uncertain and could result in substantial costs, divert management’s attention and resources, and adversely affect our business. Insurance coverage may not be sufficient to cover all related costs and damages.

Risks Related to Teads and Teads’ Industry

Unfavorable global economic conditions could adversely affect the Company’s business, financial condition or results of operations.

The Company’s results of operations could be adversely affected by general conditions in the global economy and in the global financial markets. A severe or prolonged economic downturn could result in a variety of risks to the Company’s business, including weakened demand for the Company’s products and services and the Company’s ability to raise additional capital when needed on acceptable terms, if at all. Furthermore, a weak or declining economy may strain our partner ecosystem, potentially resulting in disruptions involving our media partners or leading customers and advertising agencies to delay payments for our services. Any of the foregoing could harm the Company’s business and the Company cannot anticipate all of the ways in which the current economic climate and financial market conditions could adversely impact its business.

Operating our business requires a significant amount of cash, and the Company may need to raise additional financing in the future to fund its operations, which may not be available to it on favorable terms or at all.

We require capital to fund our ongoing working capital, capital expenditures, debt service obligations and other financing requirements, including with respect to our 10.000% senior secured notes due 2030 (the “Notes”) and our ability to make principal or interest payments on, or to refinance, the Notes. While we expect to fund these requirements through our cash flows from operations and borrowings under our Credit Facilities, this depends on our future performance, which is subject to many factors beyond our control. Our business may not generate sufficient cash flow from operations in the future to service our business and our debt, and we may require additional sources of funding to fund our operations.

If we are unable to generate such cash flow, we may be required to adopt one or more alternatives, such as selling assets, restructuring debt, obtaining additional debt financing, or issuing additional equity securities, any of which may be on terms that are not favorable to us.

Raising additional capital may be costly or difficult to obtain and could significantly dilute stockholders’ ownership interests or inhibit the Company’s ability to achieve its business objectives. If the Company raises additional funds through public or private equity offerings, the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of its Common Stock holders. Additionally, to the extent that the Company raises additional capital through the sale of Common Stock or securities convertible or exchangeable into Common Stock, its stockholders’ ownership interest in the Company will be diluted. Further, any debt financing may subject the Company to fixed payment obligations and covenants limiting or restricting its ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, making investments and certain payments, or declaring and paying dividends.

The Notes bear interest at an annual rate of 10.000%, payable semi-annually on February 15 and August 15 of each year and will mature on February 15, 2030. Our ability to make principal or interest payments on, or to repay or refinance the Notes, will depend on various factors, including the accessibility of capital markets, our business, and our financial condition at such time. We may not be able to engage in any of these activities or on desirable terms, which could result in a default on our debt obligations. Our indebtedness could also, among other things: (i) require us to dedicate a substantial portion of our cash flow from operations to service and repay the indebtedness, reducing the amount of cash flow available for other purposes; (ii) limit our flexibility in planning for and reacting to changes in our business; and (iii) adversely affect our liquidity and result in a material adverse effect on our financial condition upon repayment of the indebtedness.

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In addition, upon certain change of control events, the holders of the Notes may require our wholly-owned subsidiary to repurchase all or a portion of the Notes at a purchase price of 101.000% of their principal amount plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to, but excluding the date of purchase.

If we fail to comply with the continued listing requirements of Nasdaq, the Common Stock may be delisted, which could adversely affect its market liquidity and market price.

To maintain the listing of the Common Stock on Nasdaq, we are required to meet certain listing requirements, including Nasdaq’s Listing Rule 5450(a)(1), which requires us to maintain a minimum closing bid price of $1.00 per share (the “Minimum Bid Price Requirement”). On December 22, 2025, we received notice from Nasdaq that we are no longer in compliance with the Minimum Bid Price Requirement because the closing bid price of the Common Stock had fallen below the required minimum of $1.00 per share for 30 consecutive business days. In accordance with Nasdaq Listing Rule 5810(c)(3)(A), we have an initial period of 180 calendar days, or until June 22, 2026 (the “Compliance Date”), to regain compliance with the Minimum Bid Price Requirement. To regain compliance, the closing bid price of the Common Stock must be at least $1.00 per share for a minimum of 10 consecutive business days before the Compliance Date.

If we do not achieve compliance with the Minimum Bid Price Requirement by the Compliance Date, we may be eligible for an additional 180-day period to regain compliance if we apply to transfer the listing of the Common Stock to the Nasdaq Capital Market to take advantage of the additional compliance period offered on that market. To qualify, we would be required to meet the continued listing requirement for market value of publicly held shares and all other applicable listing standards for The Nasdaq Capital Market, with the exception of the Minimum Bid Price Requirement, and provide written notice to Nasdaq of our intention to cure the deficiency during the second compliance period by effecting a reverse stock split, if necessary.

There can be no assurance that we will maintain compliance with the requirements for listing the Common Stock on Nasdaq. If we are unable to satisfy the Nasdaq criteria for continued listing, the Common Stock would be subject to delisting. A delisting of the Common Stock could negatively impact us by, among other things, (i) reducing the liquidity and market price of the Common Stock; (ii) reducing the number of investors willing to hold or acquire the Common Stock, which could negatively impact our ability to raise equity financing; (iii) decreasing the amount of news and analyst coverage of us; (iv) limiting our ability to issue additional securities or obtain additional financing in the future; (v) limiting our ability to use a registration statement to offer and sell freely tradable securities, thereby preventing us from accessing the public capital markets; and (vi) impairing our ability to provide equity incentives to our employees. In addition, delisting from Nasdaq may negatively impact our reputation and, consequently, our business.

The Company’s internal control over financial reporting may not meet the standards required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, and failure to achieve and maintain effective internal control over financial reporting in accordance with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business and share price.

As a public company, we are subject to the reporting requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”), the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the rules and regulations of Nasdaq. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act requires, among other things, that the Company maintain effective disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting. The Company must perform system and process evaluation and testing of its internal control over financial reporting to allow management to report on the effectiveness of its internal controls over financial reporting in its Annual Report on Form 10-K filing for that year, as required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. As a private company, with limited exceptions, Legacy Teads was not previously required to test its internal controls within a specified period. This may result in the diversion of management, and the Company may experience difficulty in meeting these reporting requirements in a timely manner.

The Company may discover weaknesses in its system of internal financial and accounting controls and procedures that could result in a material misstatement of its financial statements. The Company’s internal control over financial reporting will not prevent or detect all errors and all fraud. A control system, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the control system’s objectives will be met. Because of the inherent limitations in all control systems, no evaluation of controls can provide absolute assurance that misstatements due to error or fraud will not occur or that all control issues and instances of fraud will be detected.

If the Company is not able to comply with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, or if it is unable to maintain proper and effective internal controls, the Company may not be able to produce timely and accurate financial statements. If that were to happen, investors may lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of the Company’s financial reports, the market price of the Common Stock could decline and it could be subject to sanctions or investigations by Nasdaq, the SEC or other regulatory authorities. Failure to remedy any material weakness in the Company’s internal control over financial reporting, or to implement or maintain other effective control systems required of public companies, could also restrict the Company’s future access to the capital markets.

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Sales by Altice Teads S.A. (“Altice Teads”) or other holders of shares of Common Stock, or the perception that such sales may occur, could cause the market value of the Common Stock to decline.

In connection with the Acquisition, Outbrain issued 43.75 million shares of Common Stock to Altice Teads. In connection with the closing of the Acquisition, Altice Teads and the Company entered into a registration rights agreement pursuant to which the Company agreed to provide customary demand and piggyback registration rights to the holders of registrable securities of Altice Teads, which includes, among other things, all shares of Common Stock held by Altice Teads immediately following the Acquisition closing.

In addition, pursuant to the Stockholders Agreement between the Company and Altice Teads (the “Stockholders Agreement”), Altice Teads is subject to restrictions on the transfer of the consideration it received in connection with the Acquisition. The Stockholders Agreement provides that Altice Teads may not transfer or agree to transfer any shares of Common Stock to the extent that, as a result of such transfer, any person becomes the beneficial owner of 10% or more of the total voting power of Teads. Even with these restrictions, the substantial number of shares issued in the Acquisition could, by increasing our public float or through eventual sales, exert downward pressure on the market price of our Common Stock. Altice Teads owns approximately 46% of the issued and outstanding shares of Common Stock, based on the amount of issued and outstanding shares of Common Stock as of December 31, 2025. This concentration of ownership may have a negative impact on the trading price for the Common Stock because investors often perceive disadvantages in owning stock in companies with controlling or major shareholders. In addition, Altice Teads may decide not to hold the large shareholding of Common Stock that it received in the Acquisition, and may instead decide to reduce its investment in the Company. Such sales of Common Stock or the perception that these sales may occur, could have the effect of depressing the market price for the Common Stock. This in turn could impair the Company’s future ability to raise capital through an offering of equity securities.

Altice Teads has influence over the Company, including director designation rights, and Altice Teads’ interests may not always coincide with the interests of the Company’s other stockholders.

Pursuant to the Stockholders Agreement, subject to maintaining certain beneficial ownership thresholds, Altice Teads shall have an ongoing right to designate two persons for nomination by the Board for election to the Board (a certain number of which shall be unaffiliated with Altice Teads and shall be independent from the Board). In March 2025, Messrs. Dexter Goei and Mark Mullen were appointed to the Board as the nominees of Altice Teads under the Stockholders Agreement.

The Stockholders Agreement also requires that for so long as Altice Teads and its affiliates hold in the aggregate at least 15% of the total voting power of the outstanding capital stock of the Company, Altice Teads and each of its affiliates shall take such action at each meeting of the stockholders of the Company or any class thereof as may be required so that all issued and outstanding shares of Common Stock beneficially owned by Altice Teads and/or by any of its affiliates are voted in the same manner as recommended by the Board, except (i) with the Company’s prior written consent or (ii) to the extent that the Company is in material breach of certain obligations under the Stockholders Agreement and fails to cure such breach within 10 business days of notice. As a result, for so long as Altice Teads and its affiliates hold in the aggregate at least 15% of the total voting power of the outstanding capital stock of the Company and vote in the same manner as recommended by the Board, you will have less influence as a stockholder. The voting by Altice Teads and its affiliates may limit the other stockholders’ ability to influence corporate matters, and as a result, actions may be taken that stockholders may not view as beneficial. In addition, the existence of such requirement over a significant portion of the Company’s voting power may have the effect of making it more difficult for a third party to acquire, or discourage a third party from seeking to acquire, the Company.

In addition, designees of Altice Teads currently represent 20% of the Board. As a result of such representation, Altice Teads-nominated directors may be able to influence decisions by the Board, and recommendation by the Board on proposals for Company stockholders to vote on. The ability of Altice Teads to designate persons for nomination to the Board may adversely affect the trading price of shares of the Common Stock due to investors’ perception that conflicts of interest may exist or arise with respect to the Altice Teads-nominated directors.

Our revenue and results of operations are highly dependent on overall advertising demand and spending in the markets in which we operate. Factors that affect the amount of advertising spending, such as economic downturns, unexpected events or events outside of our control, can make it difficult to predict our revenue and could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Our business depends on the overall advertising demand and spending in the markets in which we operate and on the business trends of our current and prospective media partners and advertisers. Macroeconomic factors in the U.S. and foreign markets, including instability in political or market conditions, as well as adverse economic conditions and general uncertainty about economic recovery or growth, particularly in North America, EMEA (Europe, Middle East and Africa), and Asia, where we

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conduct most of our business, could result in, and have resulted in, conservative approaches by advertisers and media owners when allocating budgets and ad inventory, respectively, and reductions in advertising demand and spend.

The continued volatile macroeconomic and geopolitical environment has impacted certain categories of our advertisers. This includes variables such as the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine, the conflict involving Israel, the U.S., Iran and surrounding nations, the conflict between Israel and Hamas (and the uncertainty regarding the sustainability of the related cease-fire), instability in the Middle East generally, and regional instability in Venezuela. Additionally, general unrest in Europe, bank failures or volatility in the financial services sector, tariffs and trade wars, inflation, supply chain disruptions, and fluctuations in U.S. and global interest rates have contributed to market uncertainty. These conditions have in turn adversely impacted us and could, if they continue or worsen, adversely impact us in the future, including if our advertisers were to reduce or further reduce their advertising spending as a result of any of these factors.

We continue to monitor our operations, and the operations of those in our ecosystem (including media partners, advertisers and agencies). However, these conditions, whether resulting from the factors described above or due to the occurrence of other unanticipated events, make it difficult for us, our media partners, advertisers and agencies to accurately forecast and plan future business activities and could cause a reduction or delay, or further reduction or delay, in overall advertising demand and spending. The occurrence of unforeseen events, like public health crises, conflicts and wars, and other macroeconomic factors that affect advertising demand may have a disproportionate impact on our revenues and profitability in certain periods and could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

In order to meet our growth objectives, we will need to continue to innovate, seek to have advertisers and media partners adopt our expanding solutions, and extend our reach into evolving digital media platforms. If we fail to grow, or fail to manage our growth effectively, the quality of our platform and solutions may suffer, and our business, results of operations, and financial condition may be adversely affected.

Our growth plans depend upon our ability to innovate, attract advertisers and digital media owners to our solutions to buy and sell new inventory, and expand the use of our solutions by advertisers and media partners utilizing CTV, Mobile In-App environments, retail media, and other digital media platforms. Our business model may not translate well into these or other emerging forms of advertising due to market resistance or other factors, such as evolving regulatory restrictions, and we may not be able to innovate successfully enough to compete effectively.

The advertising technology market is dynamic, and our success depends upon our ability to develop innovative new technologies and solutions for the evolving needs of sellers of digital advertising, including websites, applications and other media partners, and buyers of digital advertising. We also need to grow significantly to develop the market reach and scale necessary to compete effectively with large competitors. This growth depends to a significant degree upon the quality of our strategic vision and planning. The advertising market is evolving rapidly, and if we make strategic errors, there is a significant risk that we will lose our competitive position and be unable to achieve our objectives. The growth we are pursuing may itself strain the organization, harming our ability to continue that growth, and to maintain the quality of our operations. If we are not able to innovate and grow successfully, our business, results of operations, financial condition and the value of our company may be adversely affected.

Growth in our business may place demands on our infrastructure and our operational, managerial, administrative, and financial resources.

Our success will depend on our ability to manage growth effectively. Among other things, this will require us at various times to:

• strategically invest in the development and enhancement of our platform and data center infrastructure;

• manage multiple relationships with various media partners, advertisers, and other third parties;

• extend our operating, administrative, legal, financial, and accounting systems and controls;

• increase coordination among our engineering, product, operations, go-to-market and other support organizations; and

• recruit, hire, train, and retain experienced personnel.

If we do not manage growth well, the efficacy and performance of our platform may suffer, which may harm our reputation and reduce demand for our platform and solutions. Failure to manage growth effectively may have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

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Our sales and marketing efforts may require significant investments and, in certain cases, involve long sales cycles, and may not yield the results we seek. Even if our sales and marketing efforts are successful, there can be no assurance that our media partners will be able to generate sufficient traffic.

Our sales and marketing teams educate prospective advertisers and media partners about the use, technical capabilities, and benefits of our platform. Our sales cycles can take significant time from initial contact to contract execution and implementation, particularly as we integrate and cross-sell our expanded suite of performance and branding solutions. We may not succeed in attracting new media partners despite our significant investment in business development and sales and marketing, and it is complex to predict the extent of the revenue that will be generated with a media partner. We may not succeed in expanding relationships with existing media partners and advertisers, despite our significant investment in sales, account management, marketing, and research and development and it is difficult to predict when additional products will generate revenue through our platform, and the extent of that revenue. Programmatic partners tend to have a long sales cycle with distinct technical and integration requirements, as well as a separate ongoing partner management process. If we are unsuccessful in our sales and marketing efforts, our results of operations and prospects will be adversely affected.

Even if our sales and marketing efforts are successful, there can be no assurance that the properties of our media partners will be able to generate sufficient user interest, traffic or engagement. The ability of our media partners to maintain or grow their digital properties is often outside of our control and may be significantly impacted by broader media consumption trends, including shifts in how users discover and consume content through new technologies such as generative AI. Such trends may result in stagnant or declining ad inventory availability, which could negatively impact our results of operations and prospects.

Our research and development efforts may not meet the demands of a rapidly evolving technology market resulting in a loss of customers, revenue, and/or market share.

We expect to continue to dedicate considerable financial and other resources to our research and development efforts in order to maintain or improve our competitive position. However, investing in research and development personnel, developing new solutions and enhancing existing solutions is expensive and time-consuming and we may not be able to innovate at a pace sufficient to keep up with transformative technological advancements. Our research and development activities may be directed at maintaining or increasing the performance of our recommendations, developing tools that improve productivity or efficiency, or introducing new solutions. However, there is no assurance that such activities will result in significant new marketable solutions, enhancements to our current solutions, design improvements, additional revenue or other expected benefits. Furthermore, there is no assurance that our efforts to promote new or enhanced solutions, like CTV, video solutions, generative AI capabilities, or new advertiser tools, will be successful. If we are unable to generate an adequate return on our investment with respect to our research and development efforts, our business, results of operations, and financial condition may be adversely affected.

The digital advertising industry is intensely competitive, and if we do not effectively compete against current and future competitors, our business, results of operations, and financial condition could be adversely affected.

The digital advertising ecosystem is competitive and complex. Some of our competitors have longer operating histories, greater name recognition, and greater financial, technical, sales, and marketing resources than we have. In addition, some competitors may have greater flexibility than we do to compete aggressively on the basis of their scale, price and other contract terms, or to compete with us by including in their product offerings services that we may not provide. The market is fragmented and we also face competition from many smaller companies, many of which may be willing to offer their services on prices or terms that are not profitable for us. Some competitors are able or willing to agree to contract terms that expose them to risks and in order to compete effectively we might need to accommodate similar risks that could be difficult to manage or insure against.

Media owners are investing in capabilities that enable them to connect more effectively and directly with advertisers, or to partner with fewer vendors. Our business may suffer to the extent that our media partners and advertisers sell and purchase advertising inventory directly from one another or through intermediaries other than us, reducing the amount of advertising spend on our platform. If we are unable to compete effectively for media owners’ inventory and/or advertisers’ advertising spend, we may experience less demand, which could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

There has also been rapid evolution and consolidation in digital advertising, and we expect these trends to continue, thereby increasing the capabilities and competitive positioning of larger companies, particularly those that are already dominant. There is a finite number of large digital media owners and advertisers in our target markets, and any consolidation of media partners or advertisers may give the resulting enterprises greater bargaining power or result in the loss of media partners and advertisers

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that use our platform, reducing our potential base of media partners and advertisers, each of which would potentially erode our revenue.

With the introduction of new technologies and the influx of new entrants to the market, we expect competition to persist and intensify in the future, which could harm our ability to increase sales and maintain our profitability. In addition, we and our media partners compete indirectly for user engagement with larger search and social media companies, such as Meta, Google, LinkedIn, X, TikTok and major CTV platforms. We also broadly compete for advertiser budgets with other forms of traditional and online marketing, including keyword advertising, social media marketing and display advertising.

In addition, large and established internet and technology companies may have the power to significantly change the very nature of digital advertising marketplaces in ways that could materially disadvantage us. Some of these companies could leverage their positions to make changes to their web browsers, mobile operating systems, platforms, exchanges, networks or other solutions or services that could be significantly harmful to our business and results of operations. Some of these companies also have significantly larger resources than we do, and in many cases have advantageous competitive positions in popular products and services such as Amazon Advertising, Google Search, YouTube, Chrome, Meta Platforms, and Apple Search Ads, which they can use to their advantage. Furthermore, our competitors have invested substantial resources in innovation, which could lead to technological advancements that change the competitive dynamics of our business in ways that we may not be able to predict.

Loss of existing or future market share to new competitors and advertisers allocating finite budgets to competitors could substantially harm our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Losses of media partners could have a significant impact on our revenue and results of operations.

A significant portion of our recommendations are placed on web pages and mobile applications of a small number of our media partners. Certain partners may reduce or terminate their business with us at any time for any reason, including as a result of changes in their financial condition or other business circumstances, such as a change in strategy or model by which they monetize their properties. Media partners have terminated, and may in the future terminate, their relationships with us. If a la rge media partner terminates its relationships with us, or if we continue to experience terminations by several small or medium-sized media partners or reductions in the amount of inventory we receive from them, whether based on their decisions or changes in the ecosystem, we may not have access to sufficient media partners to satisfy demand from advertisers resulting in lower revenues. Further, such media partners may enter into relationships with competitors, and to the extent that becomes a long-term relationship, reestablishing our relationship with that media partner may prove difficult. In addition, losing key media partners may lead advertisers to seek alternate advertising solutions, which could slow our growth. As discussed above, establishing relationships with media partners may involve long sales cycles. As a result, the loss of a significant media partner relationship or the further loss of small- or medium-sized media partner relationships could have a material adverse impact on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Our revenue growth and future prospects will be adversely affected if we fail to expand our advertiser and agency relationships.

Our revenue growth depends on our success in expanding and deepening our relationships with existing advertisers. Our growth strategy is premised in part on increasing spend from existing advertisers. In order to do so, we must be able to demonstrate better results for our advertisers by delivering outcomes and ROAS, among other things. We do not have long-term commitments from our advertisers.

We also seek to increase the number of advertisers and to reach new advertisers, both directly and through their media agencies. Attracting new advertisers and expanding existing relationships with our advertisers requires substantial effort and expense. In particular, large advertisers with well-established brands may require us to spend significant time educating them about our platform and solutions. It may be difficult and time-consuming to identify, sell and market to potential advertisers who already allocate their budgets to large competitors and who expect to see a similar return on investment before diversifying or allocating a portion of their advertising budgets to us. If competitors introduce lower cost or differentiated offerings that compete with or are perceived to compete with the Company’s offerings, the Company’s ability to grow its business with new or existing advertisers could be impaired. It is possible that the Company may reach a point of saturation at which it cannot continue to grow its revenue because of internal limits that advertisers may place on the allocation of their advertising budgets to digital media or to a particular provider. The Company’s advertisers typically have relationships with different providers and there is limited cost to moving budgets to its competitors. As a result, the Company may have limited visibility as to its future revenue streams. Teads cannot assure that its advertisers or media owners will continue to use its platform or that it will be able to replace, in a timely or effective manner, departing customers with new customers or media partners that generate comparable revenue.

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We depend on media agencies who assist advertisers in planning and purchasing advertising for brand marketing objectives, such as preference shift and brand awareness. Media agencies may require platforms like ours to be added to preferred partners programs, connect to designated intermediaries or make various commitments. It may be difficult, costly or time-consuming to meet media agency requirements and may not result in revenue growth. If we are unsuccessful in developing new advertiser and agency relationships and maintaining and expanding our existing relationships, our results of operations and prospects will be adversely affected.

Our advertiser contracts, which can be canceled at any time, do not usually include any commitments to spend any amount of money with us, subjecting us to sudden changes in spend estimates which could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Our customers may provide estimates of how much they will spend on advertising with us, but they do not usually commit contractually to a specific spend amount, which is typical practice in the digital advertising industry. There are times when sudden terminations or unforeseen reductions in spend occur due to reasons beyond our control, including sudden changes in an advertiser’s campaign needs or financial situation unrelated to our relationship with the advertiser. If the Company is unable to effectively forecast revenue, it may not be able to make the best decisions with respect to investment and management, which could have a material adverse effect on its business, results of operations and financial condition.

We are subject to payment-related risks that may adversely affect our business, working capital, financial condition and results of operations.

Our business has been and may be further impacted by the ability or willingness of our advertisers to pay for their use of our platform. New advertisers spending on our platform, or existing advertisers allocating greater budgets to our platform, has resulted in an increase in our credit loss exposure. We may be involved in disputes with our advertisers, and in the case of agencies, their advertisers, over the operation of our platform (including regarding traffic quality or invalid traffic), the terms of our agreements or our billings for purchases made by them through our platform. If we are unable to resolve disputes with our clients or our advertisers are experiencing financial hardship, it is less likely that we will be able to collect payment, and we may lose clients or clients may decrease their use of our platform, which could adversely affect our financial performance and growth. Similarly, we face payment-related risks with respect to our media partners. While we generally seek to align our payment obligations to media partners with the collection of payments from advertisers, we may be obligated to pay our media partners regardless of whether we have collected payment from the advertiser. We are also subject, from time to time, to disputes or legal proceedings with media partners regarding the validity of traffic and the resulting payment obligations, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We have had clients who have declared bankruptcy, experienced severe financial distress, or gone out of business without remitting full payment to us, and we have incurred write-offs for credit losses as a result of the failure of our advertisers to make payments to us in a timely manner or at all. If we are unable to collect payment from advertisers or media agencies due to their inability to pay, refusal to pay, including due to traffic quality or invalid traffic allegations, severe financial distress or bankruptcy, we will incur further write-offs for credit losses, which could harm our results of operations. In the future, credit loss may exceed reserves for such contingencies and our credit loss exposure may increase over time. Any increase in write-offs for credit loss could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We also regularly experience slow payment cycles by media agencies as is common in our industry. In terms of our payment obligations, typically, we are contractually required to pay our media partners within a negotiated period of time, regardless of whether our advertisers or agency clients pay us on time, or at all. While we attempt to negotiate long payment periods with our media partners and shorter periods from our advertisers and seek to enforce the payment terms currently in place with our clients, we are not always successful.

We also face risks from partners who may act as both advertisers and media partners on our platform. In the event of a dispute, such partners may attempt to withhold payments they owe us for advertising services by exercising rights of set-off against amounts we owe them for media inventory, or they may suspend their relationship with us altogether. As a result, we must manage timing issues between our accounts payable and our accounts receivable, which may increasingly consume working capital as we continue to grow our business. If we are unable to generate sufficient funds from operations or borrow on commercially acceptable terms or at all, our working capital availability could be reduced, and as a consequence, our financial condition and results of operations would be adversely impacted.

Many of our contracts with media agencies provide that if the advertiser does not pay the agency, the agency is not liable to us, and we must seek payment solely from the advertiser, a type of arrangement called sequential liability. Contracting with these agencies, which in some cases have or may develop higher-risk credit profiles, may subject us to greater credit risk than if we were to contract directly with advertisers. This credit risk may vary depending on the nature of an advertising agency’s aggregated advertiser base.

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The failure of our AI prediction engine to accurately predict consumer engagement and outcomes may adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

The success of our AI prediction engine depends on the ability of our proprietary algorithms to predict the likelihood users will engage with our recommendations or otherwise deliver outcomes for our advertisers and media owners. We need to continuously deliver satisfactory results for advertisers and media partners in order to maintain revenue, which, in turn, depends in part on the optimal functioning of our platform and solutions. Therefore, a failure of our AI prediction engine to accurately predict user engagement or desired outcomes could negatively affect our results of operations and revenue.

If the quality of our advertisements deteriorates, or if we fail to present interesting content to consumers, we may experience a decline in user engagement, which could result in the loss of media partners.

Our technology selects what is displayed to consumers on the online properties of our media partners. Our success depends on our ability to make valuable recommendations to organic experiences and ads, which, in turn, depends on the quality of our index and our ability to predict engagement by an individual consumer within a specific context. We believe that one of our key competitive advantages is our AI prediction engine. Subject to our advertiser guidelines, we offer our media partners a degree of flexibility with respect to the type of recommendation that they believe will appeal to their audience based on the editorial tone of their properties. If the quality of our recommendations suffers, whether due to our actions or decisions made by our media partners, the types of advertisers interested in utilizing our platform, or we are otherwise unable to provide users with valuable and relevant recommendations, user engagement may decline or perceptions of our recommendations may be adversely impacted. If we experience a decline in consumers or their engagement, for example, because consumers begin to ignore our platform or direct their attention to other elements on the online properties of our media partners, our media partners and advertisers may in turn not view our solutions as attractive, which could harm our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

The content of advertisements could damage our reputation and brand, or harm our ability to expand our base of consumers, advertisers and media partners, and negatively impact our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Our reputation and brand may be negatively affected by ads that are deemed to be hostile, infringing, offensive or inappropriate by consumers, media partners or other advertisers and agencies. From time to time, we make changes in our advertiser guidelines that can result in the inclusion or exclusion of certain types of ads and cannot predict with certainty the impact that such changes might have. We have adopted policies regarding unacceptable advertisements and retain authority to remove ads that violate these policies; however, advertisers could nonetheless provide such content and occasionally circumvent our policies. If any of those ads lead to hostile, infringing, offensive or inappropriate content, our reputation could suffer by association. The safeguards we have in place may not be sufficient to avoid harm to our reputation and brand. The Teads brand may be negatively impacted by the Acquisition. This could adversely affect existing relationships with media partners, advertisers and agencies, as well as our ability to expand our user, media partner and advertiser base, and harm our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Conditions in Israel, including the ongoing conflict between Israel and Hamas and other terrorist organizations, and the conflict involving Israel, the U.S., Iran and surrounding nations may adversely affect our operations and limit our ability to market, support and innovate on our products, which would lead to a decrease in revenues.

Because a material part of our operations are conducted in Israel and certain members of our board of directors and management as well as many of our employees and consultants, including employees of our service providers, are located in Israel, our business and operations are directly affected by economic, political, geopolitical and military conditions in Israel.

Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and in recent years, armed conflicts between Israel and its neighboring countries and terrorist organizations active in the region have involved missile strikes, hostile infiltrations, terrorism against civilian targets in various parts of Israel, and recently abduction of soldiers and citizens.

Following the October 7 th attacks by Hamas terrorists in Israel’s southern border, Israel declared war against Hamas and since then, Israel has been involved in military conflicts with Hamas, Hezbollah, a terrorist organization based in Lebanon, and Iran, both directly and through proxies like the Houthi movement in Yemen and armed groups in Iraq and other terrorist organizations. Additionally, following the fall of the Assad regime in Syria, Israel has conducted limited military operations targeting the Syrian army, Iranian military assets and infrastructure linked to Hezbollah and other Iran-supported groups. Although certain ceasefire agreements have been reached with Hamas and Lebanon (with respect to Hezbollah), and some Iranian proxies have declared a halt to their attacks, there is no assurance that these agreements will be upheld, military activity and hostilities continue to exist at varying levels of intensity, and the situation remains volatile, with the potential for escalation

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into a broader regional conflict involving additional terrorist organizations and possibly other countries. Also, the fall of the Assad regime in Syria may create geopolitical instability in the region.

In June 2025, direct hostilities broke out between Israel and Iran, involving significant missile and drone strikes exchanged between the two countries. This escalation and other regional events have heightened regional instability and increased security risks across Israel. These events have resulted in significant travel restrictio ns, facility closures and shelter-in-place orders, including remote work measures, in various locations, and may further impact critical infrastructure, supply chains, and the broader Israeli economy. In October 2025, a cease-fire was brokered between Israel and Hamas. However, we cannot predict if and to what extent this cease-fire will remain in effect or upheld.

More recently, in February 2026, hostilities between Israel and Iran escalated again. In late February 2026, Israel, together with the U.S., conducted a major joint military campaign involving air and missile strikes against targets in Iran. These actions triggered a broad Iranian response and contributed to significant regional instability. The situation remains highly fluid, and we are unable to predict when, or on what terms, this escalation will be resolved.

While our facilities have not been damaged during the current conflicts, the hostilities with Hamas, Hezbollah, Iran and its proxies and others have caused and may continue to cause damage to private and public facilities, infrastructure, utilities, and telecommunication networks, potentially disrupting our operations and supply chains. In addition, Israeli organizations, government agencies and companies have been subject to extensive cyber attacks. This could lead to increased costs, risks to employee safety, and challenges to business continuity, with potential financial losses.

These conflicts have also led to a deterioration of certain indicators of Israel’s economic standing, for instance, a downgrade in Israel’s credit rating by rating agencies (such as by Moody’s, S&P Global, and Fitch).

In connection with these conflicts, several hundred thousand Israeli military reservists were drafted to perform immediate military service, and military reservists are expected to perform long reserve duty service in the coming years. As of the date of this Report, a limited number of our employees are called to active military duty. The absence of our employees due to their military service in the current or future conflicts may materially and adversely affect our ability to conduct our operations.

Our commercial insurance does not cover losses that may occur as a result of events associated with war and terrorism. Although the Israeli government currently covers the reinstatement value of certain direct damages that are caused by terrorist attacks or acts of war, we cannot assure you that such government coverage will be maintained or that it will sufficiently cover our potential damages. Any losses or damages incurred by us could have a material adverse effect on our business.

The global perception of Israel and Israeli companies, possibly influenced by the actions of international judicial bodies, may lead to increased sanctions and other negative measures against Israel, as well as Israeli companies and academic institutions. There is also a growing movement among countries, activists, and organizations to boycott Israeli goods, services and academic research or restrict business with Israel, which could affect business operations. If these efforts become widespread, along with any future rulings from international tribunals against Israel, they could significantly and negatively impact business operations.

We also do business with advertisers and media partners located in Israel. The conditions described above may impact advertising demand and the extent of monetization on media partners in Israel. A portion of our business (less than 3% of our revenues) is from advertisers in Israel displaying ads on media partner inventory in Israel which has been impacted by the above events.

Prior to the commencement of these conflicts, the Israeli government pursued changes to Israel’s judicial system and has recently renewed its efforts to effect such changes. In response to the foregoing developments, certain individuals, organizations, and institutions, both within and outside of Israel, voiced concerns that such proposed changes, if adopted, may negatively impact the business environment in Israel. Such proposed changes may also lead to political instability or civil unrest. If such changes to Israel’s judicial system are pursued by the government and approved by the parliament, this may have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and ability to raise additional funds.

Our current business model depends on media owners maintaining open access digital properties, monetizing through advertising and attracting users to their digital properties, and could be impacted by continued pressure on the publishing industry.

Our platform depends on users continuing to consume content on media owners’ digital properties. Media owners face challenges growing and maintaining their audiences as a result of the proliferation of new and innovative content distribution methods such as social media platforms and AI summarization. The overall decline in media owner audiences may limit available advertising inventory creating financial pressure on media owners who rely on advertising to operate their business. As a result of these evolving trends, we have seen and may continue to see media owners consolidating or ceasing to operate.

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In addition, some media partners, typically those that participate in both print and digital publishing, charge their users a subscription fee for online access by implementing a paywall. Our business may be negatively impacted by media partners shifting from open access to paywalls or generating less user interest because it may decrease our access to consumers and advertising inventory.

If media partners consolidate, cease to operate, or shift their revenue models from advertising, this could negatively affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition. To the extent we have long-term commitments with our media partners, and they are adversely impacted by the evolving media owner landscape, we may not be able to recoup our investment in our media partners.

Our results of operations may fluctuate significantly from period to period and may not meet our expectations or those of securities analysts and investors.

Our results of operations have fluctuated in the past, and future results of operations are likely to fluctuate as well. In addition, because our business continues to evolve, you should not place undue reliance on our historical results of operations in assessing our future prospects. Factors that can cause our results of operations to fluctuate include:

• changes in demand and competition for ad inventory sold on our platform;

• changes in our access to valuable ad inventory, including through the addition or loss of media partners on our platform;

• costs associated with adding or attempting to retain media partners;

• the continuation or worsening of unfavorable economic or business conditions or downturns or instability in financial markets;

• seasonality of our business;

• changes in consumer usage of devices and channels to access media and digital content;

• changes in the structure of the buying and selling of digital ad inventory;

• changes in the pricing policies of media partners and competitors;

• changes in third-party service costs;

• changes and uncertainty in our legislative, regulatory, and industry environment, particularly in the areas of data protection and consumer privacy;

• introduction of new technologies or solutions;

• unilateral actions taken by demand side platforms, agencies, advertisers, media partners, and supply side platforms;

• changes in our capital expenditures as we acquire hardware, technologies, and other assets for our business; and

• changes to the cost of retaining and adding highly specialized personnel.

Any one or more of the factors above may result in significant fluctuations in our results of operations.

In preparing our financial statements, we make certain assumptions, judgments and estimates that affect amounts reported in our consolidated financial statements, which, if not accurate, may significantly impact our financial results.

In preparing our financial statements, we will make assumptions, judgments, and estimates for a number of items. These assumptions, judgments and estimates are drawn from historical experience and various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances as of the applicable date of the consolidated financial statements. Actual results could differ materially from our estimates, and such differences could significantly impact our financial results.

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Our profitability has been and may continue to be adversely impacted, or may fluctuate on a quarterly basis, due to guarantees that we have provided to some of our media partners.

In order to secure favorable terms, such as exclusivity and longer-term agreements, we may offer media partners contracts with guaranteed minimum rates of payments. These guarantees require us to pay our media partner for the ad impressions we receive, regardless of factors such as whether the consumer engages with the ad or we are paid by the advertiser. If the level of consumer engagement on a media partner property or overall advertiser demand falls, the payments to our media partners with guaranteed minimum rates of payment may adversely impact our Ex-TAC Gross Profit and our margins. This includes the possibility of paying a media partner an amount in excess of the revenue that we generated from ads served on that media partner property. The revenue from ads served on a media partner property or overall advertiser demand could drop for reasons outside of our control. It is also possible that we will agree to a rate of payment that is more difficult to profitably recoup than we originally believed. In additi on, many of our contract s that contain guarantee arrangements set a single rate of payment and do not account for seasonal revenue fluctuations. As a result, our gross profit margins may fluctuate with the seasonality of the business. Additionally, these guarantees may adversely impact our traffic acquisition costs in absolute dollar terms and as a percentage of revenue, as well as overall profitability. The provision of guaranteed minimum rates to additional media partners or to existing media partners upon contract renewal, or the provision of such guarantees in contracts that contemplate a large number of page views, such as some of the contracts we have entered into with large media partners, may increase the risk that our gross profit and/or margins may be adversely impacted for the reasons we describe above.

Seasonal fluctuations in advertising activity and large cyclical events could have a material impact on our revenue, cash flow and operating results.

Our revenue, cash flow, operating results and other key operating and performance metrics may vary from quarter to quarter due to the seasonal nature of our advertisers’ spending. For example, advertisers tend to devote more of their advertising budgets to the fourth calendar quarter to coincide with user holiday spending. Moreover, advertising inventory in the fourth quarter may be more expensive due to increased demand. Other large cyclical events that attract advertisers, such as elections, the Olympics and other sporting events, the Oscars, or other large entertainment events, also could cause our revenue to increase during certain periods and decrease in other periods.

If currency exchange rates fluctuate substantially in the future, our results of operations, which are reported in U.S. dollars, could be adversely affected.

We are exposed to the effects of fluctuations in currency exchange rates. Following the Acquisition, our exposure to foreign currencies, particularly the Euro, has significantly increased. A significant percentage of our international revenue is from advertisers who pay us in currencies other than the U.S. dollar. We also incur operating expenses in local currencies, including with respect to employee compensation, at our offices outside of the United States and, most significantly, in Israel (New Israeli Shekel), the United Kingdom (British Pound) and Euro-based countries (Euro) where we operate. Fluctuations in the exchange rates between the U.S. dollar and those other currencies could result in the U.S. dollar equivalent of such foreign-denominated revenue being lower than would be the case if exchange rates were stable and the U.S. dollar equivalent of such expenses being hig her. This could have a negative impact on our reported operating results. We evaluate periodically the various currencies to which we are exposed and take hedging measures to reduce the potential adverse impact from the appreciation or the depreciation of our non-U.S.-dollar-denominated operations, as appropriate. Any such strategies, such as forward contracts, options and foreign exchange swaps related to transaction exposures that we may implement to mitigate this risk may not fully eliminate our exposure to foreign exchange fluctuations.

Our business depends on our ability to collect, use and disclose data to deliver advertisements. Any limitation imposed on our collection, use or disclosure of this data could significantly diminish the value of our solution.

We use “cookies,” and similar technologies placed on consumer devices when an Internet browser is used, as well as mobile device identifiers, to gather data that enables our platform to be more effective. We collect this data through various means, including code that media partners and advertisers implement on their pages, software development kits installed in mobile applications, our own cookies, and other tracking technologies. Our advertisers, directly or through third-party data providers, may choose to further target their campaigns within our platform.

The data we collect improves our algorithms and helps us deliver relevant recommendations with greater consumer engagement. Our ability to collect and use data is critical to the value of our platform. Without cookies, mobile device IDs, and other tracking technology data, our recommendations would be informed by less information about user interests and advertisers may have less visibility into their return on ad spend. If our ability to use cookies, mobile device IDs or other tracking technologies is limited, we may be required to develop or obtain additional applications and technologies to compensate for the lack of cookies, mobile device IDs and other tracking technology data, which could be time consuming or

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costly to develop, less effective, and subject to additional regulation. As described in more detail below under the risk factor titled “ User growth and engagement depends upon effective interoperation with devices, platforms and standards set by third parties that we do not control, ” prominent technology companies also have discontinued, or announced intentions to discontinue, the use of certain cookies, and to develop alternative methods and mechanisms for tracking users .

Additionally, we are subject to laws and regul ations related to data privacy, data protection, information security, and consumer protection across different markets where we conduct our business, which could potentially impact our ability to collect, use, and disclose data as described under the risk factor titled “ We are subject to laws and regulations related to online privacy, data protection, and information security, and consumer protection across different markets where we conduct our business, including in the United States and Europe. Such laws, regulations, and industry requirements are constantly evolving and changing and could potentially impact data collection and data usage for advertising and recommendations. Our actual or perceived failure to comply with such obligations could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition. ”

There are many technical challenges relating to our ability to collect, aggregate and associate the data, and we cannot assure you that we will be able to do so effectively, which would adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

User growth and engagement depends upon effective interoperation with devices, platforms and standards set by third parties that we do not control.

Our advertisements are primarily accessed through desktops, laptops and mobile devices, and are adaptable across many digital environments, including web pages, mobile applications, email and video players. In the future, our advertisements may be accessed through other new devices and media platforms. As a result, we depend on the interoperability of our solutions with popular devices, platforms and standards that we do not control. For example, because many users access our platform through mobile devices, we depend on the interoperability of our solutions with mobile devices and operating systems such as Android and iOS. Any changes in, or restrictions imposed by, such devices, platforms or standards that impair the functionality of our current or proposed solutions, limit what our media partners may or may not display, how they acquire audiences, or give preferential treatment to competitive products or services could adversely affect usage of our platform.

Some users also download free or paid “ad blocking” software on their computers or mobile devices, not only for privacy reasons, but also to counteract the adverse effect advertisements can have on the user experience, including increased load times, data consumption, and screen overcrowding. If more users adopt these measures, our business, results of operations, and financial condition could be adversely affected. Many applications and other devices allow users to avoid receiving advertisements by paying for subscriptions or other downloads. Prominent media technology companies, including Google, are also limiting what advertisements may be rendered through their browsers in the name of user experience and load times. Ad-blocking technologies negatively impact our business by reducing the volume or effectiveness and value of advertising.

Prominent technology companies also have discontinued, or announced intentions to discontinue, the use of certain cookies, and to develop alternative methods and mechanisms for tracking users. The most commonly used Internet browsers allow users to modify their browser settings to block first-party cookies (placed directly by the media partner or website owner that the user intends to interact with) or third-party cookies, and some browsers block third-party cookies by default. For example, Apple already prohibits the use of third-party cookies and moved to “opt-in” privacy models with iOS requiring users to voluntarily choose (opt-in) to permit app developers to track them across applications and websites and therefore receive targeted ads. In addition, although Google has announced it will not completely deprecate third party cookies, it is expected to introduce new privacy options to restrict the availability of such technologies across its platforms. As a consequence of these changes, fewer of our cookies or media partners’ cookies may be set in browsers or be accessible in mobile devices, which adversely affects our business.

As companies replace cookies, it is possible that such companies may rely on proprietary algorithms or statistical methods to track users without cookies, or may utilize log-in credentials entered by users into other web properties owned by these companies, such as their email services, to track web usage, including usage across multiple devices. Alternatively, such companies may build different and potentially proprietary user tracking methods into their widely-used web browsers. Any transition could be more disruptive, slower, or more expensive than we currently anticipate, and could materially affect the accuracy of our recommendations and ads and thus our ability to serve our advertisers, adversely affecting our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

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If we fail to detect and prevent invalid traffic, including click and impression fraud, or other invalid engagements with the advertisements we serve, we could lose the confidence of our advertisers, which would cause our business to suffer and negatively impact our financial results.

Our success relies on delivering measurable business value to our advertisers. We are exposed to the risk of invalid traffic and other invalid engagements that advertisers may perceive as undesirable. A major source of such activity includes non-human or invalid traffic, such as sophisticated botnets operating in mobile environments, spoofed or manipulated data, and traffic originating from non-human data centers. These and other practices can result in instances where a user, automated script or computer program intentionally engages with or generates impressions for ads for reasons other than accessing the underlying content. If we are unable to detect and prevent such activity, or if we manage traffic quality in a way that advertisers find unsatisfactory, the affected advertisers may experience or perceive a reduced return on their investment in our platform. Such issues have led to, and could continue to result in, dissatisfaction with our solutions, including refusals to pay, refund demands, or the withdrawal of future business, as well as commercial disputes or litigation. This could damage our brand and lead to a financial loss or to a loss of advertisers which would adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Our failure or the failure of third parties to protect our sites, networks and systems against security breaches, or otherwise to protect our confidential information or the confidential information of our partners, could damage our reputation and brand and substantially harm our business and operating results.

We collect, maintain, transmit and store data about consumers, clients, employees, business partners and others, including personally identifiable information, as well as other confidential information. We also engage third parties that store, process and transmit these types of information on our behalf. We have experienced and expect to continue to experience actual and attempted cyberattacks. For example, we recently discovered, and are investigating, potential unauthorized access to certain proprietary code. Our security measures, and those of our third-party service providers, have not in the past detected or prevented, and might not in the future detect or prevent, all attempts to breach our systems including denial-of-service attacks, viruses, malicious software, break-ins, phishing attacks, social engineering, security breaches, ransomware, credential stuffing attacks or other attacks and similar disruptions that may jeopardize the security of information stored in or transmitted by our websites, networks and systems or that we or such third parties otherwise maintain. We and such third parties have not in the past anticipated or prevented, and might not in the future anticipate or prevent, all types of attacks, and because techniques used to obtain unauthorized access to or sabotage systems change frequently, attacks might not be known to us or our third-party service providers until after they are launched. In addition, security breaches can occur as a result of non-technical issues, including intentional or inadvertent breaches by our employees or by third parties. Further, the use of AI technologies by cybercriminals continues to be a major concern, including with respect to deep-fake technologies, which continue to improve, allowing bad actors to manipulate or fabricate visual and audio content and convincingly fake identities. These risks may increase over time as the complexity and number of technical systems and applications we use also increases.

Breaches of our security measures or those of our third-party service providers or cyber security incidents have in the past resulted, and could in the future result, in: unauthorized access to our applications, sites, networks and systems; unauthorized access to and misappropriation of data and customer information, including customers’ personally identifiable information, or other confidential or proprietary information of ourselves or third parties; phishing scams and malware, ransomware and other malicious Internet-based activity; deletion or modification of content or the display of unauthorized content on our sites; interruption, disruption or malfunction of operations; costs relating to breach remediation, deployment of additional personnel and protection technologies, response to governmental investigations and media inquiries and coverage; engagement of third-party experts and consultants; litigation; regulatory action; and other potential liabilities. Any security breach or cyber incident, whether actual or perceived, which impacts us or one of our third-party service providers could significantly damage our reputation and brand, cause our business to suffer through, among other things, loss of, or failure to attract, media partners or advertisers and we could be required to expend significant capital and other resources to alleviate problems caused by such breaches.

In addition, some jurisdictions have enacted laws requiring companies to notify individuals of data security breaches involving certain types of personal data, and our agreements with certain partners may require us to notify them in the event of a security incident. These mandatory disclosures may lead to negative publicity and may cause our users, media partners or advertisers to lose confidence in the effectiveness of our data security measures. In the European Union and United Kingdom a data breach involving personal data will generally require notification of the relevant Supervisory Authority(ies) and, where the risk to individuals is high, notification of the affected individuals themselves. In the European Union and United Kingdom there is a possibility of significant fines being imposed in the event of a security breach.

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Any security breach or cyber incident, which impacts us or one of our third-party service providers, or any failure on our part or on the part of such third parties to protect our sites, networks and systems or to protect our confidential information or the confidential information of others could damage our reputation and brand and substantially harm our business and operating results.

Our business depends on our ability to maintain and scale our technology platform. Real or perceived errors, disruptions or outages in our platform, including due to the possible cyberattacks discussed above or our failure to maintain adequate security and supporting infrastructure, could adversely affect our operating results and growth prospects.

We depend upon the sustained and uninterrupted operation of our platform to generate recommendations, serve ads, manage our content index, continually improve and analyze our data assets and optimize performance in real time. If our platform cannot scale to meet demand, or if there are errors, bugs, or other performance failures, including any related to our third-party service providers, in our execution of any of these functions on our platform, then our business may be harmed. Undetected bugs, defects, errors and other performance failures may occur, especially when we are implementing new solutions or features. Despite testing by us, such performance failures in our platform may occur, which could result in negative publicity, damage to our brand and reputation, loss of or delay in market acceptance of our solutions, increased costs or loss of revenue, loss of competitive position or claims by advertisers or media partners for losses sustained by them.

We also face risks of disruptions of service from third-party interference with our platform. As discussed above, cyberattack techniques are constantly evolving and becoming increasingly diverse and sophisticated. Our platform is designed to include proactive and reactive detection mechanisms, along with features intended to degrade or disable certain services when required to minimize the impact of an incident on our partners and consumers. However, while we have systems in place to counter attacks and breaches, cyberattacks have occurred in the past and we cannot guarantee that future attacks will not have significant adverse consequences, including impacting the content displayed on our media partners’ properties, disrupting our advertisers’ campaigns, or resulting in malicious activity on consumers’ devices. Any such disruptions to our platform and our servers could interrupt our ability to provide our solutions and significantly affect our reputation, relationships with media partners and advertisers, business and results of operations.

Any disruptions to our platform and our servers could interrupt our ability to provide our solutions and materially affect our reputation, relationships with media partners and advertisers, business and results of operations. There can be no assurance that any limitation of liability provisions in our contracts would be enforceable or adequate or would otherwise protect us from any such liabilities or damages with respect to any particular claim arising from such disruptions. Further, in certain circumstances we may indemnify our customers for losses they may incur for our failure to deliver services pursuant to the terms of service set forth in our service contracts. We also cannot be sure that our existing insurance coverage will continue to be available on acceptable terms, will be available in sufficient amounts to cover one or more large claims, or that insurers will not deny coverage as to any future claim. Specifically, our insurance policies may have exclusions which would limit our ability to recover under such policies, the limits under such policies may be insufficient, or insurers may deny coverage following their investigation of a claim. The successful assertion of one or more large claims against us that are excluded from our insurance coverage or that exceed available insurance coverage, or changes in our insurance policies (including premium increases, the imposition of large deductible or co-insurance requirements, changes in terms and conditions or outright cancellation or non-renewal of coverage), could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. Furthermore, the assertion of such claims, whether or not successful, could cause us to incur reputational damage, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. Moreover, anticipating cyberattacks or alleviating problems resulting from errors or disruptions in our platform could require significant resources, which would adversely impact our financial position, and results of operations.

AI presents risks for the Open Internet. We use AI in our business, and challenges with efficiently adopting AI and properly managing its use could result in competitive harm, reputational harm, and legal liability, and adversely affect our results of operations.

Advancements in AI present opportunities and risks for our business, particularly within the context of the Open Internet. AI has the potential to alter the competitive dynamics of digital advertising by changing the way in which users access information and content. This change could reduce advertiser reliance on the Open Internet and in particular publishers, which in turn may negatively impact our business model. We are currently facing a changing ecosystem, including declining traffic trends on the traditional publisher side and shifts in user behavior due to the proliferation of generative AI tools, particularly their integration into major search engines and web browsers, which is causing a change in how users discover and consume content online. These tools can provide users with direct answers and AI-generated summaries, which has reduced their need to click through to original publisher websites. This trend of bypassing the traditional user journey to a publisher’s site has led to a decline in direct user traffic across the Open Internet. If we are unable to address disruptions such as these, adapt to evolving market expectations, or compete effectively with AI-driven ecosystems, our growth and market position could be adversely impacted.

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Our business relies on the incorporation of machine learning and predictive AI solutions into our platform, offerings, services and features and these applications are becoming even more important in our operations. Our competitors or other third parties may incorporate AI into their products more quickly or more successfully than us, which could impair our ability to compete effectively and adversely affect our results of operations. Additionally, if the content, analyses, or recommendations that AI applications assist in producing are or are alleged to be infringing, deficient, inaccurate, or biased, our business, financial condition, and results of operations may be adversely affected and we may be subject to the risk of litigation. We have also announced that we are experimenting with various generative AI capabilities with the goal of automating and significantly enhancing platform functionality, ad variety and overall engagement. Generative AI, however, also presents various management risks, as well as emerging ethical issues, and if our use of AI becomes difficult to manage and/or controversial, we may experience brand or reputational harm, competitive harm, or legal liability. As a result of the complexity and rapid development of AI and generative AI, AI is the subject of evolving levels of review by various governmental and regulatory agencies in jurisdictions across the world, which are implementing and enforcing the applicable legal and regulatory frameworks, including, for example, the EU AI Act and other laws regarding the labeling and transparency of AI-generated content.

In addition, there have been numerous other laws and bills proposed at the U.S. federal, state and local level, as well as internationally, aimed at regulating the deployment or provision of AI systems and services. This includes the Colorado AI Act, which is the first U.S. state comprehensive law relating to the development and deployment of certain AI systems. The Colorado AI Act is currently scheduled to become effective on June 30, 2026, and, like the EU AI Act, provides for a regulatory risk-based framework. Other U.S. states have adopted or are considering similar laws regulating AI, creating a patchwork of state AI laws with which companies must comply absent any omnibus federal regulation. These or other jurisdictions may adopt similar or more restrictive laws and regulations that may restrict or hinder the use of AI technologies.

We may not be able to accurately predict how courts and regulators will implement new laws or regulations, or apply existing laws or regulations, to AI or otherwise respond to applicable developing legal AI frameworks. The rapid evolution of AI, including government regulation of AI, may impede our ability to do business and will require significant resources to compete effectively and to ensure compliance with evolving regulatory requirements.

Adoption of AI tools by us and by our third-party vendors and service providers may increase the risk of errors, omissions, bias, unfair treatment or fraud in our services, which may adversely impact our results of operations or financial condition.

We have made, and expect to continue to make, investments to incorporate AI into our operations, and we also expect that our third-party vendors and service providers will increasingly develop and incorporate AI into their product offerings and services. The adoption and incorporation of these tools can lead to inaccuracy of output (often called “hallucinations”), concerns about explainability and transparency of the use of AI, bias and unfair treatment, unauthorized disclosure of confidential information or personal data, insufficient human oversight, intellectual property infringement, and non-compliance with applicable laws and regulations.

While we have implemented an AI governance framework, including risk assessments of internal and vendor AI solutions, due diligence, model validation and controls, and policies designed to promote responsible, secure and ethical use of AI, these controls, testing and auditing processes may not be sufficient to prevent all errors, bias, unfair treatment or fraud. Furthermore, given the rapid pace of adoption of these tools by vendors and service providers, we may not always be aware of the integration of new AI capabilities into third-party tools prior to their use in our environment, limiting our ability to assess the associated risks.

If we do not adequately manage the risks described above, we could experience reputational harm, ethical challenges, legal liability, regulatory findings or enforcement actions, financial losses, fines and other adverse impacts on our business. Additionally, if we do not have sufficient rights to use the data on which our AI tools rely, or to use the outputs of such tools (especially with respect to generative AI), we may incur liability through the violation of applicable privacy laws, or face claims of copyright infringement or breach of contract by third parties.

Failures or loss of our infrastructure, including hardware and software, with respect to us and other service providers on which we rely, could adversely affect our business.

We rely on owned and leased servers and other third-party hardware and infrastructure to support our operations. To support our business needs, we operate our own proprietary cloud infrastructure using third party data centers co-located in separate locations managed by different vendors in the United States. In addition, we also serve recommendations from a public cloud. We do not have control over the operations of these facilities or technology of our cloud and service providers, including any third-party vendors that collect, process and store personal data on our behalf. Our systems, servers and platforms and those of our service providers may be vulnerable to computer viruses, physical or electronic break-ins, sabotage, intentional acts of vandalism and other misconduct that our security measures or the security measures of these service providers may not detect. Individuals able to circumvent such security measures may disrupt our operations, damage our hardware and infrastructure,

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misappropriate confidential or proprietary information or otherwise impair our reputation and business. Additionally, to the extent that our cloud and other service providers experience security breaches that result in the unauthorized or improper use of confidential data, employee data or personal data, we may not be indemnified for losses resulting from such breaches. There can be no assurance that we or our third-party providers will be successful in preventing security breaches, including as a result of cyber attacks, or successfully mitigating their effects.

Further, our operations are vulnerable to damage or interruption from fires, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, power loss, telecommunications failures or similar catastrophic events, as well as service outages, technical failures, or configuration errors within the public cloud environments we utilize. If a data center or cloud region goes offline or experiences significant latency, we may attempt to transition to alternate facilities or regions; however, our service may be slowed or degraded, or certain features may become unavailable, until full operations are restored. We cannot assure you that future outages or provider-side service interruptions may not have significant adverse consequences to our business. Moreover, if for any reason our arrangement with one or more of our data center or cloud service providers is terminated, we could incur additional expenses and operational delays in migrating our infrastructure and data.

We depend on highly skilled personnel to grow and opera te our business, and if we are unable to hire, retain and motivate our personnel, we may not be able to grow effectively.

Our future success depends upon continued contributions from our employees, in particular our senior management team and other highly skilled personnel across our organization. From time to time, there may be changes in our senior management team, and such changes may be disruptive to our business. The loss of the services of any members of our senior management team, or our inability to attract and retain other key personnel, could impede, delay, or prevent the successful growth of our business. We do not maintain key person life insurance for any employee.

Our growth strategy also depends on our ability to expand and retain our organization with highly skilled personnel across all functions. Identifying, recruiting, training and integrating qualified individuals will require significant time, expense and attention. Competition for such talent in our industry is intense across all our locations, particularly in New York City, where our headquarters are located, and in Israel, France and Slovenia, where we conduct the majority of our research and development activities. We may need to invest significant amounts of cash and equity and, therefore, may be impacted by our share price performance, to attract and retain employees. If we are not able to effectively add and retain employees, our ability to achieve our strategic objectives could be adversely impacted, and our business could be harmed.

Our corporate culture has contributed to our success, and if we cannot maintain it as a result of our hybrid work model or otherwise, we could lose the innovation, creativity, and teamwork fostered by our culture, and our business may be harmed.

We believe our corporate culture has been a critical component of our success as we believe it fosters innovation, creativity, and teamwork across our business, helping to drive our success. We cannot ensure we can effectively maintain our corporate culture as we continue to grow and maintain the hybrid work model. As we expand and change, in particular across multiple geographies, following acquisitions, including the Acquisition, in more remote environments or in global talent centers, it may be difficult to preserve our corporate culture, which could reduce our ability to innovate, create, and operate effectively. Over time, factors such as expansion, dispersal and remote operations may also decrease the cohesiveness of our teams, which is critical to our corporate culture. The failure to preserve our culture could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition by negatively affecting our ability to attract, recruit, integrate and retain employees, continue to perform at current levels, and effectively execute our business strategy.

Our employees, contractors, consultants or other associated parties may behave in contravention of our internal policies or laws and regulations applicable to us, or otherwise act unethically or illegally, which could harm our reputation or subject us to liability.

We have implemented and expect to implement a number of internal policies, including our Code of Business Conduct and Ethics and policies including those related to security, AI, privacy and respectful behavior in the workplace and securities trading in order to promote and enforce ethical conduct and compliance with laws and regulations applicable to us. Compliance with these policies requires awareness and understanding of the policies and any changes therein by the parties to whom they apply. We may fail to effectively or timely communicate internal policies or changes therein to our employees, contractors, consultants or other associates, and such persons may otherwise fail to follow our policies for reasons beyond our control. We are exposed to the risk that our employees, contractors, consultants or other associates may engage in activity that is unethical, illegal or otherwise contravenes our internal policies or the laws and regulations applicable to us, whether intentionally, recklessly or negligently. It may not always be possible to identify and deter misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may be ineffective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from

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governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to comply with these laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including harm to our reputation and the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our customer relationships, business, results of operations and financial condition.

Utilizing labor in foreign countries may subject us to additional risks, which could have an adverse effect on our business, operating results and financial condition.

We have attempted to control our operating expenses by utilizing lower cost labor in foreign countries, such as India, and we may in the future expand our reliance on off-shore labor. Countries outside of the United States may be subject to relatively higher degrees of political and social instability and may lack the infrastructure to withstand political unrest, natural disasters, pandemics or other instability, which could interfere with work performed by these labor sources or could result in our having to replace or reduce these labor sources. Moreover, we may have difficulty in successfully staffing, transitioning knowledge of systems and controls, and managing our foreign operations, which could impact our business, financial condition or results of operations. Doing business outside of the U.S. also increases our risk exposure to anti-corruption laws and regulations, such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act to the extent in effect, any violation of which could expose us to significant financial penalties or consent orders that may curtail our business.

Our business may be adversely affected by matters associated with our labor force.

Certain of our employees are covered by collective bargaining agreements or represented by works councils. We have employees located in countries in which employment laws provide greater bargaining or other rights to employees than the laws of the U.S. Such employment rights require us to work collaboratively with the legal representatives of those employees to effect any changes to labor arrangements. For example, certain employees in Europe are represented by works councils with whom we may need to consult on changes in conditions of employment, which may slow down or impede efforts to restructure our workforce or implement changes. While we believe our relations with our employees and their various representatives are generally satisfactory, labor relations matters may be costly to support, cause delays in our operations or otherwise have a material adverse effect on our business.

We may engage in strategic transactions, which may not yield a positive financial outcome. Further, such activity may result in the company operating in businesses beyond its current core business with risk factors beyond those which are identified here.

From time to time, we may evaluate potential mergers and acquisitions or investment opportunities. We have made a number of acquisitions in the past, including the Acquisition. Any transactions that we enter into could be material to our financial condition and results of operations. The process of integrating an acquired company, business or technology could create unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures. Acquisitions and investments carry with them a number of risks, including the following:

• diversion of management time and focus from operating our business;

• implementation or remediation of controls, procedures and policies of the acquired company;

• integration of financial systems;

• coordination of product, engineering and selling and marketing functions;

• retention of employees from the acquired company;

• unforeseen liabilities;

• litigation or other claims arising in connection with the acquired company; and

• in the case of foreign acquisitions, the need to integrate operations across different cultures and languages and to address the particular economic, currency, political and regulatory risks associated with specific countries.

Our failure to address these or other risks encountered in connection with acquisitions could cause us to fail to realize the anticipated benefits of such acquisitions, resulting in unanticipated liabilities and harming our business, results of operations and financial condition.

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Risks Relating to Legal or Regulatory Matters

Our business is subject to political and regulatory risks in the various markets in which we operate; compliance with differing and changing regulatory requirements poses compliance challenges.

Our business is subject to regulation, which is rapidly evolving, and the business and regulatory environment in each of the international markets in which we operate may differ. For example, regulations relating to our business, including our employees, our arrangements with media partners and advertisers, stricter rules relating to content running through our network, and privacy related regulations affect how we conduct our business. The following are some of the political and regulatory risks and challenges we face across jurisdictions:

• greater difficulty in enforcing contracts;

• higher costs of doing business internationally, including costs incurred in establishing and maintaining office space and equipment for our international operations;

• risks associated with trade restrictions and foreign legal requirements, including any certification and localization of our platform that may be required in foreign countries;

• organizing or similar activity by workers, local unions, work councils, or other labor organizations;

• our ability to respond to competitive developments and other market and technological dynamics, such as the emergence of generative AI;

• greater risk of unexpected changes in regulatory practices, tariffs, and tax laws and treaties;

• compliance with anti-bribery laws, including, without limitation, compliance with the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, to the extent in effect, and the UK Bribery Act;

• compliance with data protection and privacy law regimes of various countries, especially as our business relates to consumer online privacy and interested-based advertising;

• heightened risk of unfair or corrupt business practices in certain geographies and of improper or fraudulent sales arrangements that may impact financial results and result in restatements of, or irregularities in, financial statements;

• the uncertainty of protection for intellectual property rights in some countries;

• general economic and political conditions in these foreign markets, including political and economic instability in some countries;

• the potential for heightened regulation relating to content curation or discovery as a result of concerns relating to the spread of disinformation through technology platforms;

• double taxation of our international earnings and potentially adverse tax consequences due to changes in the tax laws of the United States or the foreign jurisdictions in which we operate; and

• with respect to the United States, changes in federal policy, including trade and tariff policies and tax policy, occur over time through policy and personnel changes following elections. As a result, we may be subject to executive orders and regulatory changes affecting various aspects of our operations. For example, the U.S. has imposed tariffs on Mexico, Canada, China, India, Japan and the E.U., and may impose further tariffs on other nations. In return, China has imposed retaliatory tariffs on the United States, and others may follow. Such changes in trade policy or the imposition of tariffs could have a material adverse effect on our customers’ advertising spend, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

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We are subject to laws and regulations related to online privacy, data protection, information security, content and consumer protection across different markets where we conduct our business, including in the United States and Europe. Such laws, regulations, and industry requirements are constantly evolving and changing and could potentially impact data collection and data usage for advertising and recommendations. Our actual or perceived failure to comply with such obligations could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

We receive, store, and process data about or related to users in addition to our media partners, advertisers, services providers and employees. Our handling of this data is subject to a variety of federal, state, and foreign laws and regulation by various government authorities, as well as contractual obligations with our partners.

The U.S. federal and various state and foreign governments have adopted or proposed limitations on the collection, distribution, use, and storage of data relating to individuals. Additionally, the Federal Trade Commission and many state attorneys general are interpreting federal and state consumer protection laws as imposing standards for the online collection, use, dissemination, and security of data and issuing separate guidance in this area. If we fail to comply with any such laws or regulations, we may be subject to enforcement actions that may not only expose us to litigation, fines, and civil and/or criminal penalties, but also require us to change our business practices as well as have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

The regulatory framework for online privacy issues is continuously evolving and is likely to receive global scrutiny for the foreseeable future. Restrictions could be placed upon the collection, management, aggregation, and use of information, which could result in a material increase in the cost of collecting or otherwise obtaining certain kinds of data and could limit the ways in which we may use or disclose information. In particular, the use of data to draw inferences about a user’s interests and deliver relevant advertising to that user, and similar or related practices (sometimes referred to as interest-based advertising, behavioral advertising or personalized advertising), has come under increasing scrutiny by legislative, regulatory, and self-regulatory bodies in the United States and abroad that focus on consumer protection or online privacy. Much of this scrutiny has focused on the use of cookies and other technologies to collect information about Internet users’ online browsing activity on web browsers, mobile devices, and other devices, to associate such data with user or device identifiers or individual identities across devices and channels. As we rely upon large volumes of data collected primarily through cookies and similar technologies, it is possible that these legislative and technical changes may have a substantial impact on our ability to collect and use the data of Internet users. It is essential that we monitor global privacy developments and engage in responsible privacy practices, including providing users with notice of the types of data we collect and how we use that data to provide our services.

In the United States, the U.S. Congress and state legislatures, along with federal regulatory authorities have increased their attention on matters concerning the collection and use of consumer data. For example, California enacted the California Consumer Privacy Act, along with related regulations (together, the “CCPA”), which was subsequently updated by the California Privacy Rights Act (“CPRA”). The CCPA creates individual privacy rights for California residents and increases the privacy and security obligations of businesses handling personal data and the CPRA imposes additional data protection obligations including limitation on the use and processing of sensitive personal data. The CCPA and CPRA are enforceable by the California Attorney General and there is also a private right of action relating to certain data security incidents. The CCPA generally requires covered businesses to, among other things, provide disclosures to California consumers and afford California consumers abilities to opt-out of the sharing of personal data between parties, a concept that is defined broadly, with behavioral advertising triggering such requirements under the CCPA. The CCPA and CPRA or subsequent guidance may require us to further modify our data processing practices and policies and to incur substantial costs and expenses in an effort to comply.

At least 19 other U.S. states have been implementing similar privacy laws, such as Virginia, Colorado, Connecticut and Utah and we expect to see more states adopting privacy laws in the future. Any disparity between federal and state laws may add additional complexity, including a variation in requirements, restrictions, and potential legal risk, and may require additional investment in compliance programs, result in disjointed internal approaches to the collection and use of data as a result of state-based differences or impact strategies and availability of previously useful data.

In Europe, the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (“GDPR”) took effect on May 25, 2018 and applies to products and services that we provide in Europe, as well as the processing of personal data of individuals in the European Economic Area (“EEA”), wherever that processing occurs. The GDPR includes operational requirements for companies that receive or process personal data of individuals in the EEA that are different from those that were in place in the EEA prior to the GDPR. Failure to comply with GDPR, or its implementation in the United Kingdom through the UK GDPR and the Data Protection Act 2018 (together, the “UK GDPR”), may result in significant penalties for non-compliance, in the United Kingdom, the greater of £17.5 million or 4% of the total worldwide turnover in the preceding financial year or, in the case of the GDPR, whichever is greater, €20 million or 4% of an enterprise’s global annual revenue. In addition to the foregoing, a breach of the GDPR or the UK GDPR could result in regulatory investigations, reputational damage, orders to cease/change our processing of our data, enforcement notices, and/or assessment notices (for a compulsory audit).

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In addition, there is increased focus on the self-regulatory mechanisms created to further compliance with these regulations. For example, the Internet Advertising Bureau (“IAB”) Transparency & Consent Framework (“TCF”) has been criticized for being inherently incompatible with GDPR. As a result, loss of confidence in such mechanisms and slow adoption rates of changes may undermine the viability of the TCF such that there is no industry standard for requesting and obtaining consent, all of which could negatively affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition. The UK Information Commissioner’s Office (“ICO”), the Irish Data Protection Commission and the French Commission Nationale de l’Informatique et de Libertés (“CNIL”) have investigated and continue to investigate the ad tech industry, including our partners and the use of cookies. For example, in November 2019, the ICO conducted an audit of the ad tech industry which ultimately included an investigation of Legacy Teads’ real-time bidding processes. In addition, in November 2024 the CNIL’s investigation team initiated an investigation into Outbrain and though the alleged infringements of data privacy law giving rise to the investigation remains unclear, there can be no assurance that action, including the imposition of sanctions or other penalties, will not be required as a result of such investigation.

Though GDPR is intended to harmonize privacy laws across the EEA, member state interpretations of the law continue to vary, making compliance increasingly complex. For example, France and Germany have adopted a strict approach to the dropping of any cookies without consent, even if cookies are used strictly for technical delivery and not for personalization. In addition, the European Data Protection Board has issued guidance under Article 5(3) which has adopted a strict interpretation of consent requirements. In addition to GDPR, in the European Union we are subject to national laws implementing the ePrivacy Directive (2002/58/EC), which regulate the use of cookies, tracking technologies, and electronic communications and are implemented and interpreted differently across member states, creating compliance complexity and potentially inconsistent obligations. The CJEU Fashion ID, Planet 49, Wirtschaftsakademie cases have driven increased attention to cookies and tracking technologies and impacted compliance requirements across the ecosystem, particularly when applied in conjunction with GDPR. Although we have developed technical solutions to comply with such cookie limitations, evolving interpretations of required limitations may result in unintended consequences with respect to our operations, such as inhibiting fraud prevention efforts or user experience. As more regulators (such as the German and French regulators) enforce a stricter approach regarding the use of cookies, we expect further system changes, limitations on the effectiveness of our advertising activities, and compliance requirements, which may adversely affect our margins, increase costs, and subject us to additional liabilities.

It is possible that CCPA (and other U.S. privacy laws), GDPR, UK GDPR and the ePrivacy Directive in Europe and related standards may be interpreted and applied in manners that are, or are asserted to be, inconsistent with our data management practices or the technological features of our solutions, and any failure to achieve required data protection standards may result in lawsuits, regulatory fines, or other actions or liability, all of which may harm our results of operations.

We may also face civil claims, including from privacy advocates who continue to call for scrutiny of the ad tech industry, or representative actions and class action litigation, some of which may be novel theories of how privacy laws might apply in our industry as a result of anachronistic or competing directives. For example, the Austrian online ePrivacy campaign group NOYB has filed several strategic complaints against major tech companies, alleging non-compliance with GDPR provisions. We have seen an increasing number of individual data subject requests and, in one instance, a filing of an action in the Belgian courts in an attempt to prohibit processing of data by us. The increasing number of these requests, claims and further industry scrutiny requires investment of resources and could result in reputational harm and significant damages or other liabilities.

In addition, privacy advocacy and industry groups may propose new and different self-regulatory standards that either legally or contractually apply to us, our media partners or our advertisers, such as the IAB U.S. Global Privacy Platform and Multi-State Privacy Agreement. We are members of self-regulatory bodies that impose additional requirements related to the collection, use, and disclosure of consumer data, such as the right to opt out of the sharing or the sale of their personal information for interest-based advertising purposes. Some of these self-regulatory bodies might refer violations of their requirements to the Federal Trade Commission or other regulatory bodies. If we were to be found responsible for such a violation, it could adversely affect our reputation, as well as our business, our compliance with self-regulatory frameworks, results of operations, and financial condition.

In Europe, the Digital Services Act (EU) 2022/2065 (“DSA”) became enforceable in February 2024 and applies to digital services that connect consumers to goods, services, or content in the EEA. Although we have not been classified as a “very large online platform” under the DSA, we are still required to comply with the provisions of the DSA and/or support our partners’ compliance with the provisions of the DSA. The DSA, among other things, imposes stricter obligations on curbing harmful or unlawful content, such as implementing tools to automatically monitor, detect and take down illegal online content and implements a mechanism for users to easily flag content and to cooperate with “trusted flaggers” (such as NGOs). Sanctions under the DSA include fines of up to 6% of global turnover in the event of non-compliance and can lead to a ban on operating in the E.U. in cases of repeated serious breaches. A similar piece of legislation, the Online Safety Bill, is currently being discussed in the UK. In addition to the foregoing, a breach of the DSA could result in regulatory investigations,

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reputational damage, orders to cease/change our services, enforcement notices, and/or assessment notices (for a compulsory audit). We may also face civil claims including representative actions and other class action type litigation (where individuals have suffered harm), potentially amounting to significant compensation or damages liabilities, as well as associated costs, diversion of internal resources, and reputational harm. In addition, we may be required to indemnify media partners against claims with respect to our advertising content. Our advertisers may not have the ability to satisfy their indemnification obligations to us, in whole or in part, and pursuing any claims for indemnification may be costly or unsuccessful. As a result, we may be required to satisfy indemnification obligations to media partners, or claims against us, with our own assets.

As a result of any of the above, we may be involved in litigation or governmental investigations, whether on our own, or involving or concerning our media partners, advertisers or partners, including class action claims, or as a third party required to comply with investigations or requests for information or subpoenas. As a result of such actions, we may become subject to significant liability, including claims for damages, financial penalties, and costs of compliance. Claims may be expensive to defend, divert management’s attention from our business operations, and affect the cost and availability of insurance, even if we ultimately prevail. If any of this occurs, it may have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business operations, financial position, competitive position and prospects.

If media partners, advertisers, and data providers do not obtain necessary and requisite consents from consumers for us to process their personal data, we could be subject to fines and liability.

Pursuant to GDPR, the UK GDPR and the ePrivacy Directive, media partners, advertisers and any partners are required to obtain unambiguous consent from EEA data subjects to process their personal data, which the industry has addressed through the release and widespread adoption of the IAB TCF. Because we do not have direct relationships with users, we rely on media partners, advertisers, and other partners, as applicable, to implement notice or choice mechanisms using industry-standard consent mechanisms and complying with requirements under applicable laws in respect of such consent mechanisms (for example, notifying users of our activities). In addition, we rely on our media partners, advertisers and partners, as applicable, to comply with applicable laws including to provide sufficient notice to users and transmit notifications of consent (or non-consent) after the user has interacted with a consent mechanism. We make reasonable efforts to enforce contractual requirements regarding notice and choice mechanisms, but, due to the nature and scale of our media partners, advertisers and partners, comprehensive, ongoing and systematic audits of all our media partners’, advertisers’ and other partners’ compliance with our recommended practices or with applicable laws and regulations are complex and impractical to execute. Where applicable, we may only use user data to deliver interest-based advertisements where we have consent. If media partners, advertisers, or partners do not follow the process (and in any event as the legal requirements in this area continue to evolve and develop), we (and they) could be subject to regulatory scrutiny, fines and liability. We may not have adequate insurance or contractual indemnity arrangements to protect us against any such claims or losses.

Evolving legislation and mechanisms governing the transfer of personal data from the EEA or the UK to the United States, introduce increased uncertainty and may require us to change our EEA/UK data practices and/or rely on an alternative legally sufficient compliance measure.

The GDPR and the UK GDPR generally prohibit the transfer of personal data of EEA/UK subjects outside of the EEA/UK, unless a lawful data transfer solution has been implemented or a data transfer derogation applies. In 2023, the E.U.-U.S. Data Privacy Framework (DPF) was adopted as the replacement mechanism for transfer of E.U. data to the US after the 2020 invalidation of the prior E.U.-U.S. Privacy Shield mechanism. The DPF is a voluntary certification program administered by the US Department of Commerce which requires companies to self-certify compliance with the DPF principles. Although we are certified under the DPF, this mechanism has faced legal scrutiny despite surviving its first legal challenge. Similar to the invalidation of the Privacy Shield, the invalidation of the DPF may impact our ability to transfer EEA/UK data to the United States.

The second mechanism, the UK and EEA Standard Contractual Clauses (“SCCs”), was upheld as a valid legal mechanism for transnational data transfer. However, the ruling requires that European organizations seeking to rely on the SCCs to export data out of the EEA ensure the data is protected to a standard that is “essentially equivalent” to that in the EEA including, where necessary, by taking “supplementary measures” to protect the data. Despite such decision, rulings in 2022 from the Austrian Datenschutzbehörde bring into question whether supplemental measures for the transfer of data outside of the UK and EEA will be deemed sufficient by media partners, regulatory bodies and courts. If such supplementary measures are found to be inadequate, this may adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

In the event that use of the DPF, the SCCs or reliance on the UK adequacy decision are invalidated as solutions for data transfers to the U.S., or there are additional changes to the data protection regime in the EEA/UK resulting in any inability to transfer personal data from the EEA/UK to the U.S. in compliance with data protection laws, European media partners and

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advertisers may be more inclined to work with businesses that do not rely on such compliance mechanisms, such as EEA/UK-based companies or other competitors that do not need to transfer personal data to the U.S. Such changes could cause us to incur penalties under GDPR or UK GDPR, could increase the cost and complexity of operating our business, or adversely impact our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Any governmental investigations, legal proceedings, or claims against us could result in liability, harm our reputation and could be costly and time-consuming to defend.

From time to time, we are subject to legal proceedings, arbitration, and litigation claims, including those arising in connection with employment, competition, intellectual property, privacy or commercial matters. We also may be exposed to potential claims brought by third parties against us, our media partners or our advertisers. Such claims may allege, for example, that our advertisers’ recommendations (including the destination page reached) infringe the intellectual property or other rights of third parties, are false, deceptive, misleading or offensive, that the inventory we monetize consists of or is alleged to be invalid traffic, or that our advertisers’ products are defective or harmful. These matters have included, and may in the future include, disputes regarding alleged patent infringement and commercial disagreements involving traffic quality or payment obligations, the outcomes of which are uncertain and could result in financial liability.

Our regulatory compliance depends in part on our media partners’ and advertisers’ adherence to laws and regulations of multiple jurisdictions concerning copyright, trademark and other intellectual property rights, unfair competition, privacy and data protection, and truth in-advertising, and their use of our platform in ways consistent with users’ expectations. In general, we require our media partners and advertisers to comply with all applicable laws, including all applicable intellectual property, content, privacy and data protection regulations. We rely on contractual representations from media partners and advertisers that they will comply with all such applicable laws. We make reasonable efforts to enforce contractual notice requirements, but, due to the nature of our business, comprehensive, ongoing and systematic audits of all of our media partners’ and advertisers’ compliance with our recommended disclosures or with applicable laws and regulations are complex and impractical to execute. If our media partners or advertisers were to breach their contractual or other requirements in this regard, or a court or governmental agency were to determine that we, our media partners and/or our advertisers failed to comply with any applicable law, then we may be subject to potentially adverse publicity, damages and related possible investigations, litigation or other regulatory activity. While we generally seek indemnification from our partners, such indemnification may not be sufficient to cover our losses, may be disputed by the partner, or the partner may lack the financial resources to satisfy their indemnity obligations.

In addition, any perception that we, our media partners and/or our advertisers fail to comply with current or future regulations and industry practices may expose us to public criticism, collective redress actions, reputational harm or claims by regulators, which could disrupt our industry and/or operations and expose us to increased liability.

As a result of the above, we are involved from time to time in litigation, arbitration or governmental investigations, whether on our own, or involving or concerning our media partners or advertisers, including class action claims, or as third-parties required to comply with requests for information or subpoenas. As a result of such actions, we may become subject to significant liability, including claims for damages, financial penalties, and costs of compliance. Claims may be expensive to defend, divert management’s attention from our business operations, and affect the cost and availability of insurance, even if we ultimately prevail. If any of this occurs, it may have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business operations, financial position, competitive position and prospects.

We have in the past been, and may in the future be, be unable to obtain, maintain and protect our intellectual property rights and proprietary information, or prevent third parties from making unauthorized use of our intellectual property or claiming unauthorized use of their intellectual property.

Our intellectual property rights are important to our business. We rely on a combination of confidentiality clauses, trade secrets, copyrights, patents and trademarks to protect our intellectual property and know-how. However, the steps we take to protect our intellectual property may be inadequate. We have not in the past been, and may not in the future be, able to protect our intellectual property if we are unable to enforce our rights or if we do not detect unauthorized use of our intellectual property. Despite our precautions, it has in the past been, and may in the future be, possible for unauthorized third parties, including our employees, consultants, service providers, media partners or advertisers, to copy our products and/or obtain and use information that we regard as proprietary. It may also be possible for such unauthorized third parties to create solutions and services that compete with ours. We cannot assure you that the steps taken by us will prevent misappropriation of our trade secrets or technology or infringement of our intellectual property. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries where we operate do not protect our proprietary rights to as great an extent as the laws of the United States, and many foreign countries do not enforce these laws as diligently as government agencies and private parties in the United States.

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Our policy is to enter into confidentiality and invention assignment agreements with our employees and consultants and enter into confidentiality agreements with the parties with whom we have strategic relationships and business alliances. No assurance can be given that these agreements will be effective in controlling access to our proprietary information and other intellectual property. Further, these agreements do not prevent our competitors from independently developing technologies that are substantially equivalent or superior to our solutions.

We may from time to time be subject to claims of prior use, opposition or similar proceedings with respect to applications for registrations of our intellectual property, including but not limited to our trademarks and patent applications. The process of seeking patent protection can be lengthy and expensive, and any of our pending or future patent or trademark applications, whether or not challenged, may not be issued with the scope of the claims we seek, if at all. We are unable to guarantee that patents or trademarks will issue from pending or future applications or that, if patents or trademarks issue, they will not be challenged, invalidated or circumvented, or that the rights granted under the patents will provide us with meaningful protection or any commercial advantage. We rely on our brand and trademarks to identify our solutions to our media partners and advertisers and to differentiate our solutions from those of our competitors. If we are unable to adequately protect our trademarks, third parties may use our brand names or trademarks similar to ours in a manner that may cause confusion to our users or confusion in the market, or dilute our brand names or trademarks, which could decrease the value of our brand.

From time to time, we may discover that third parties are infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating our intellectual property rights. However, policing unauthorized use of our intellectual property and misappropriation of our technology is difficult and we may therefore not always be aware of such unauthorized use or misappropriation. Despite our efforts to protect our intellectual property rights, unauthorized third parties may attempt to use, copy or otherwise obtain and market or distribute our intellectual property rights or technology or otherwise develop solutions with the same or similar functionality as our solutions. If competitors infringe, misappropriate or otherwise misuse our intellectual property rights and we are not adequately protected, or if such competitors are able to develop solutions with the same or similar functionality as ours without infringing our intellectual property, our competitive position and results of operations could be harmed and our legal costs could increase.

In addition, the Company cannot be certain that its products and services do not and will not infringe or misappropriate the intellectual property rights of others. From time to time, the Company is subject to legal disputes and claims, including claims that its systems, processes, marketing, data usage or technologies infringe on the intellectual property rights of third parties. The Company may incur significant costs in defending ag ainst such claims and could also be required to indemnify its customers if they are sued by a third party for intellectual property infringement arising from materials that the Company has provided to the customers in connection with the provision of its products and services. The Company may not be successful in defending against such intellectual property claims, in which case it could lose valuable property rights, or in obtaining licenses or an agreement to resolve any intellectual property disputes.

We may be subject to intellectual property rights claims by third parties, which are costly to defend and could require us to pay significant damages and could limit our ability to use technology or intellectual property.

We operate in an industry with extensive intellectual property litigation. There is a risk that our business, platform, and services may infringe or be alleged to infringe the trademarks, copyrights, patents, and other intellectual property rights of third parties, including patents held by our competitors or by non-practicing entities. We may also face allegations that our employees have misappropriated or divulged the intellectual property of their former employers or other third parties. Regardless of whether claims that we are infringing patents or other intellectual property rights have any merit, the claims are time consuming, divert management attention and financial resources and are costly to evaluate and defend. Some of our competitors have substantially greater resources than we do and are able to sustain the cost of complex intellectual property litigation to a greater extent and for longer periods of time than we could. Results of these litigation matters are difficult to predict and may require us to stop offering some features, purchase licenses, which may not be available on favorable terms or at all, or modify our technology or our platform while we develop non-infringing substitutes, or incur significant settlement costs. Any of these events could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Our platform relies on third-party open source software components. Failure to comply with the terms of the underlying open source software licenses could expose us to liabilities, and the combination of open source software with code that we develop could compromise the proprietary nature of our platform.

Our platform utilizes software licensed to us by third-party authors under “open source” licenses and we expect to continue to utilize open source software in the future. The use of open source software may entail greater risks than the use of third-party commercial software, as open source licensors generally do not provide warranties or other contractual protections regarding infringement claims or the quality of the code. To the extent that our platform depends upon the successful operation of the open source software we use, any undetected errors or defects in this open source software could prevent the deployment or impair the functionality of our platform, delay new solutions introductions, result in a failure of our platform, and injure our

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reputation. For example, undetected errors or defects in open source software could render it vulnerable to breaches or security attacks, and, in conjunction, make our systems more vulnerable to data breaches. Furthermore, some open source licenses contain requirements that we make available source code for modifications or derivative works we create based upon the type of open source software we use. If we combine our proprietary software with open source software in a specific manner, we could, under some open source licenses, be required to release the source code of our proprietary software to the public. This would allow our competitors to create similar solutions with lower development effort and time and ultimately put us at a competitive disadvantage.

Although we monitor our use of open source software to avoid subjecting our platform to conditions we do not intend, we cannot assure you that our processes for controlling our use of open source software in our platform will be effective. If we are held to have breached the terms of an open source software license, we could be required to seek licenses from third parties to continue operating using our solution on terms that are not economically feasible, to re-engineer our solution or the supporting computational infrastructure to discontinue use of code, or to make generally available, in source code form, portions of our proprietary code.

We are required to comply with international advertising regulations in connection with the distribution of advertising, including potential regulation or oversight of native advertising disclosure standards. Failure to comply could negatively impact us, our media partners and/or our advertisers, which could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

We are subject to complex and changing advertising regulations in many jurisdictions in which we operate, including regulatory and self-regulatory requirements to comply with native advertising regulations in connection with the advertising we distribute for our advertisers. For example, in the United States, the Federal Trade Commission requires that all online advertising meet certain principles, including the clear and conspicuous disclosure of advertisements. If we, or our advertisers, make mistakes in implementing this varied and evolving guidance, or our commitments with respect to these principles, we could be subject to negative publicity, government investigation, government or private litigation, or investigation by self-regulatory bodies or other accountability groups. Any such action against us could be costly and time-consuming and may require us to change our business practices, cause us to divert management’s attention and our resources and be damaging to our reputation and our business. Moreover, additional or different disclosures may lead to a reduction in user engagement, which could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Corporate sustainability risks could adversely affect the Company’s reputation, business and performance and the trading price of the Common Stock.

Companies are facing increasing scrutiny from investors, customers, governmental agencies, regulators and other stakeholders related to their corporate sustainability practices and disclosure. The nature, scope and complexity of matters that we must assess and report are constantly changing due to evolving governmental and investor expectations regarding reporting relating to climate change, diversity and inclusion, workplace conduct and human capital management. Significant expenditures and commitment of time by management, employees and consultants are involved in developing, implementing and overseeing policies, practices, additional disclosures and internal controls related to corporate sustainability risk and performance. An inability to implement such policies, practices, and internal controls and maintain compliance with laws and regulations, or a perception among stakeholders that our corporate sustainability disclosures and goals are insufficient, our goals are unattainable or are not an appropriate area of focus could harm our reputation and have an adverse impact on our business, financial condition or results of operations. Investors, investor advocacy groups and investment funds may focus on these practices, especially as they relate to the environment, climate change, diversity and inclusion, workplace conduct and human capital management. Any negative public perception resulting from evolving anti-corporate sustainability initiatives from the U.S. federal and/or certain state governments and other stakeholders could damage our reputation with investors, customers, employees and regulators. We may also face conflicting U.S. federal, state level and international requirements which could subject us to risk of non-compliance in one jurisdiction based on our compliance in another. Balancing evolving and potentially conflicting requirements related to climate change, diversity and inclusion (including those relating to recent executive orders from the U.S. presidential administration), workplace conduct and human capital management could take significant time and management resources. Increased corporate sustainability-related compliance costs could result in increases to our overall operational costs which could impact our profitability. Ultimately, any of the foregoing could have an adverse impact on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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Risks Related to Taxation

Our tax liabilities may be greater than anticipated.

The U.S. and non-U.S. tax laws applicable to our business activities are subject to interpretation and are changing. We are subject to audit by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service and by taxing authorities of the state, local and foreign jurisdictions in which we operate. Our tax obligations are based in part on our corporate operating structure, including the manner in which we develop, value, use and hold our intellectual property, the jurisdictions in which we operate, how tax authorities assess revenue-based taxes such as sales and use taxes, the scope of our international operations, and the value we ascribe to our intercompany transactions. Depending on how and when future earnings are repatriated, we may be required to accrue and pay additional taxes, including any applicable foreign withholding tax and income taxes. Taxing authorities may challenge, and have challenged, our tax positions and methodologies for valuing developed technology or intercompany arrangements, positions regarding the collection of sales and use taxes, and the jurisdictions in which we are subject to taxes, which could expose us to additional taxes. Any adverse outcomes of such challenges to our tax positions could result in additional taxes for prior periods, interest and penalties, as well as higher future taxes.

In addition, our future tax expense could increase as a result of changes in tax laws, regulations or accounting principles, or as a result of earning income in jurisdictions that have higher tax rates. For example, the European Commission has proposed, and various jurisdictions have enacted or are considering enacting laws that impose separate taxes on specified digital services, which may increase our tax obligations in such jurisdictions. Digital services or other similar taxes could, among other things, increase our tax expense, create significant administrative burdens for us, discourage potential customers from subscribing to our platform due to the incremental cost of any such sales or other related taxes, or otherwise have a negative effect on our financial condition and results of operations. In addition, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (“OECD”) is progressing on a Base Erosion and Profit Shifting Project that, if implemented, would change various aspects of the existing framework under which our tax obligations are determined in many of the countries in which we do business. More than 140 countries tentatively signed on to a framework that imposes a minimum tax rate of 15%, among other provisions, and the European Union has adopted a Council Directive which requires these provisions to be transposed into member states’ national laws. As this framework is subject to further negotiation and implementation by each member country, the timing and ultimate impact of any such changes on our tax obligations are uncertain.

Moreover, the determination of our provision for income taxes and other tax liabilities requires significant estimates and judgment by management, and the tax treatment of certain transactions is uncertain. The income tax benefit/expense we record may vary significantly in future periods based on factors outside of our control, such as the uncertainty with respect to the current macroeconomic environment on our operations and our stock price. For example, in periods in which our stock price varies from the grant price of the share-based compensation vesting in that period, we will recognize excess tax benefits or shortfalls that will impact our effective tax rate.

Any changes, ambiguity, or uncertainty in taxing jurisdictions’ administrative interpretations, decisions, policies and positions, including the position of taxing authorities with respect to revenue generated by reference to certain digital services, could also materially impact our income tax liabilities. Although we believe that our estimates and judgments are reasonable, the ultimate outcome of any particular issue may differ from the amounts previously recorded in our financial statements and any such occurrence could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Future events may impact our deferred tax asset position including deferred tax assets related to our utilization of net operating losses (“NOLs,” each an “NOL”) and U.S. deferred federal income taxes on undistributed earnings of international affiliates that are considered to be reinvested indefinitely.

We evaluate our ability to utilize deferred tax assets and our need for valuation allowances based on available evidence. This process involves significant management judgment regarding assumptions that are subject to change from period to period based on changes in tax laws or variances between future projected operating performance and actual results. We are required to establish a valuation allowance for deferred tax assets if we determine, based on available evidence at the time the determination is made, that it is more likely than not that some portion or all of the deferred tax assets will not be utilized. In making this determination, we evaluate all positive and negative evidence as of the end of each reporting period. Future adjustments (either increases or decreases), to a deferred tax asset valuation allowance are determined based upon changes in the expected realization of the net deferred tax assets. The utilization of our deferred tax assets ultimately depends on the existence of sufficient taxable income in carry-forward periods under the applicable tax law. Due to significant estimates used to establish a valuation allowance and the potential for changes in facts and circumstances, it is possible that we will be required to record adjustments to a valuation allowance in future reporting periods. Changes to a valuation allowance or the amount of deferred taxes could have a materially adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. Further, while we no longer plan to reinvest indefinitely our earnings from our foreign subsidiaries and have recorded a deferred tax

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liability related to the expected tax costs of repatriation, changes to our business, financial condition, or results of operations may necessitate changes in what earnings are considered indefinitely reinvested or how such earnings are repatriated in the future. Should we change our assertion regarding the permanent reinvestment of the undistributed earnings of certain of our foreign subsidiaries, our deferred tax liability may need to be revised.

The ability to fully utilize our NOL and tax credit carryforwards to offset future taxable income may be limited. Under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change NOL carryforwards to offset its post-change income may be limited. In general, an “ownership change” will occur if there is a cumulative change in our ownership by 5% or greater stockholders that exceeds 50% over a rolling three-year period. Similar rules may apply under state tax laws. We may experience ownership changes in the future as a result of future transactions in our stock. As a result, if we earn net taxable income, our ability to use our pre-change NOL carryforwards or other pre-change tax attributes to offset United States federal and state taxable income may be subject to limitations. Any such limitations on the ability to use our NOL carryforwards and other tax assets could adversely impact our business, financial condition, and operating results.

Risks Related to the Securities Markets and Ownership of the Common Stock

The trading price of the shares of our Common Stock has been, and is likely to continue to be, volatile, and purchasers of our Common Stock could incur substantial losses.

Technology stocks historically have experienced high levels of volatility. The trading price of our Common Stock has fluctuated significantly and may continue to do so. These fluctuations have caused and could cause you to incur further substantial losses, including all of your investment in our Common Stock. Factors that could cause fluctuations in the trading price of our Common Stock include the following:

• significant volatility in the market price and trading volume of technology companies in general and of companies in the digital advertising industry in particular;

• announcements of new solutions or technologies, commercial relationships, acquisitions, or other events by us or our competitors;

• price and volume fluctuations in the overall stock market from time to time;

• changes in how advertisers perceive the benefits of our platform and future offerings;

• the public’s reaction to our press releases, public announcements, and filings with the SEC;

• fluctuations in the trading volume of our shares or the size of our public float;

• sales of large blocks of Common Stock;

• actual or anticipated changes or fluctuations in our results of operations;

• changes in actual or future expectations of investors or securities analysts;

• litigation involving us, our industry, or both;

• governmental or regulatory actions or audits;

• regulatory developments applicable to our business, including those related to privacy in the United States or globally;

• general economic conditions and trends;

• major catastrophic events in our domestic and foreign markets; and

• departures of key employees.

In addition, if the market for technology stocks, the stock of digital advertising companies, or the stock market in general experiences a loss of investor confidence, the trading price of our Common Stock could decline for reasons unrelated to our business, results of operations, or financial condition. The trading price of our Common Stock might also decline in reaction to events that affect other companies in the digital advertising industry even if these events do not directly affect us. In the past, following periods of volatility in the market price of a company’s securities, securities class action litigation has often been brought against that company. If litigation is instituted against us, we could incur substantial costs and divert management’s attention and resources.

In addition, although we are not currently prioritizing the use of cash for share repurchases, any repurchases pursuant to current or future share repurchase programs could affect our stock price and increase its volatility. The existence of such a program

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could also cause our stock price to be higher than it would be in the absence of the program and could potentially reduce the market liquidity for our Common Stock. There can be no assurance that any share repurchases will enhance stockholder value because the market price of our Common Stock may decline below the levels at which we repurchased shares. Although share repurchase programs are generally intended to enhance long-term stockholder value, short-term stock price fluctuations could reduce their effectiveness. Furthermore, these programs do not obligate the Company to repurchase any specific dollar amount or number of shares and may be commenced, suspended, or discontinued at any time; any such suspension or discontinuation could cause our stock price to decline.

If securities or industry analysts publish unfavorable research or reports about our business, or if they cease coverage of our Company, our stock price and trading volume could continue to decline.

The trading market for our Common Stock depends, in part, on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. We do not have any control over these analysts. Analysts have in the past, and may in the future, downgrade our shares, change their opinion of our business prospects, or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, which has led to, and could continue to lead to, a decline in our share price. Furthermore, if securities or industry analysts cease coverage of the Company, as has occurred in the past, or fail to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which could cause our share price or trading volume to further decline.

Sales of substantial amounts of our Common Stock in the public markets, or the perception that they may occur, could cause the market price of our Common Stock to decline or continue to decline.

The market price of our Common Stock has declined and may further decline as a result of substantial sales of Common Stock, or the potential for such sales by our directors, executive officers and significant stockholders. Such price pressure may also result from a large number of shares of Common Stock becoming available for sale or the perception in the market that holders of a large number of shares intend to sell their shares.

Our directors, executive officers and employees hold options and restricted stock units under our equity incentive plans, and the shares issuable upon the exercise of such options or vesting of such restricted stock units have been registered for public resale under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the “Securities Act”). Accordingly, these shares will be able to be freely sold in the public market upon issuance subject to certain legal and contractual requirements.

We do not intend to pay dividends on the Common Stock, so any returns will be limited to the value of the Common Stock.

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on the Common Stock and do not expect to pay any dividends in the foreseeable future. Any determination to pay dividends in the future will be at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on a number of factors, including our financial condition, results of operations, capital requirements, general business conditions and other factors that our board of directors may deem relevant. Our current credit facility imposes certain limitations on our ability to pay dividends and any new credit facility may contain certain similar restrictions. Until such time that we pay a dividend, investors must rely on sales of their Common Stock after price appreciation, which may never occur, as the only way to realize any future gains on their investments.

Anti-takeover provisions in our charter documents and under Delaware law could make an acquisition of our company, which may be beneficial to our stockholders, more difficult and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws may delay or prevent an acquisition of us or a change in our management. These provisions include:

• authorizing “blank check” preferred stock, which could be issued by the board without stockholder approval and may contain voting, liquidation, dividend and other rights superior to the Common Stock, which would increase the number of outstanding shares and could thwart a takeover attempt;

• a classified board of directors whose members can only be dismissed for cause;

• the prohibition on actions by written consent of our stockholders;

• the limitation on who may call a special meeting of stockholders;

• the establishment of advance notice requirements for nominations for election to our board of directors or for proposing matters that can be acted upon at stockholder meetings; and

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• the requirement of at least 75% of the outstanding capital stock to amend any of the foregoing second through fifth provisions.

In addition, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which limits the ability of stockholders owning in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock to merge or combine with us. Although we believe these provisions collectively provide for an opportunity to obtain greater value for stockholders by requiring potential acquirers to negotiate with our board of directors, they would apply even if an offer rejected by our board were considered beneficial by some stockholders. In addition, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors, which is responsible for appointing the members of our management.

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Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with our audited annual consolidated financial statements and the related notes and other financial information included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K (this “Report”). In addition to historical financial information, the following discussion contains forward-looking statements that reflect our plans, estimates, beliefs, and expectations, and involve risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results, events, or circumstances to differ materially from those projected in the forward-looking statements. Factors that could cause or contribute to these differences include those discussed below and elsewhere in this Report, particularly under Item 1A, “Risk Factors” and “Note About Forward-Looking Statements.”

The purpose of this Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (“MD&A”) is to provide the readers of our financial statements with narrative information from our management, which is necessary to understand our business, financial condition, and results of operations. The MD&A should be read in conjunction with our audited consolidated financial statements and notes thereto. In addition to the audited consolidated financial statements prepared in accordance with the generally accepted accounting principles in the United States (“GAAP”), we use certain non-GAAP financial measures throughout this discussion to provide investors with supplemental metrics used by our management for financial and operational decision making. These measures are supplemental and are not an alternative to our financial statements prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. See “Non-GAAP Reconciliations” in this Report for the definitions and limitations of these measures, and reconciliations to the most comparable U.S. GAAP financial measures.

Business Overview

Acquisition of Teads

On February 3, 2025, Outbrain Inc. (“Outbrain”) completed its acquisition (the “Acquisition”) of TEADS, a private limited liability company ( société à responsabilité limitée ) incorporated and existing under the laws of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (“Legacy Teads”). The consideration paid at the closing of the Acquisition was approximately $900 million, comprising a cash payment of $625 million, subject to certain customary adjustments, and 43.75 million shares of the Company’s common stock, $0.001 par value per share. Following the closing, Altice Teads S.A. owned approximately 46.6% of the Company’s issued and outstanding Common Stock. Effective June 6, 2025, Outbrain changed its corporate name to Teads Holding Co. (“Teads”). Effective June 10, 2025, Teads’ shares started trading on The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC under the trading symbol TEAD.

In this Annual Report on Form 10-K (this “Report”), the consolidated financial statements of the Company include the results of operations for Legacy Teads from February 3, 2025 through December 31, 2025. We are presenting the results of predecessor Outbrain’s operations as of and for the year ended December 31, 2024, which do not include the financial position or results of operations of Legacy Teads as of and for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Throughout this Report, except where otherwise stated or indicated by context, references to the “Company,” “we,” “our,” or “us” are to Teads together with its consolidated subsidiaries, references to “Outbrain” are to our predecessor Outbrain, and references to “Legacy Teads” are to TEADS prior to its acquisition by Outbrain.

General

The Company is a leading omnichannel advertising platform focused on driving outcomes for brand and performance advertisers across screens. The Company is headquartered in New York, New York with various wholly-owned subsidiaries, including in Europe, the Middle East and Asia.

The Company was initially formed as Outbrain in Delaware in 2006. Effective June 6, 2025, following the Acquisition, the Company changed its corporate name to Teads.

We operate a two-sided marketplace, which creates a scaled end-to-end advertising solution. We have direct relationships with both (i) global advertisers including Fortune 500 brands, agency holding companies, and small-to-medium sized businesses, and (ii) media owners spanning premium publishers to connected TV (“CTV”), application developers and other existing and emerging content platforms. We generate revenue from advertisers purchasing media owner inventory through our platform.

Our platform is designed to enable advertisers to not only reach their audiences across the digital advertising ecosystem — from web, to CTV, to app environments — but to drive desired outcomes from those audiences at each step of the marketing funnel. These outcomes include completed views, post-click engagement, brand uplift, sign-ups, sales, and more. Leveraging our expansive and often exclusive media inventory across platforms, we believe we provide a more connected consumer experience across the digital advertising ecosystem. Our solution is designed to directly address some of the largest challenges in the advertising industry today — including inefficient supply chains and fragmentation, the threat to publisher page views from

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generative artificial intelligence (“AI”), quality and scale of inventory, and the ability to correlate advertising investment to concrete business outcomes. For advertisers and their agencies, we offer a single access point to scaled audiences across premium, curated media environments, with technology solutions that drive outcomes from branding to performance. For media owners, we provide both sustainable, year-round advertising revenue and technology solutions to more deeply engage and retain audiences.

The following is a summary of our performance for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, which incorporates the results of operations for Legacy Teads from February 3, 2025 through December 31, 2025:

• Our revenue was $1,300.5 million in 2025, compared to $889.9 million in 2024. Revenue for 2025 included net favorable foreign currency effects of approximately $15.5 million, and increased $395.1 million, or 44.4%, on a constant currency basis, compared to the prior year period.

• Our gross profit was $429.1 million and our gross margin was 33.0% in 2025, compared to gross profit of $192.1 million and gross margin of 21.6% in 2024.

• Our Ex-TAC Gross Profit (1) was $529.7 million in 2025, compared to $236.1 million in 2024.

• Our net loss was $517.1 million, or (120.5)% of gross profit in 2025, compared to net income of $0.7 million, or (0.4)% of gross profit in 2024. Net loss for 2025 included non-cash impairment charges related to goodwill and intangible assets of $367.7 million, pre-tax acquisition-related costs of $28.9 million relating to the Acquisition, and restructuring charges of $15.3 million (as defined below).

• Our Adjusted EBITDA (1) was $93.4 million in 2025, compared to $37.3 million in 2024. Adjusted EBITDA (1) was 17.6% and 15.8% of Ex-TAC Gross Profit (1) in 2025 and 2024, respectively.

(1) Ex-TAC Gross Profit, Adjusted EBITDA and constant currency measures are non-GAAP financial measures. See “Non-GAAP Reconciliations” in this Report for definitions and limitations of these measures, and reconciliations to the comparable U.S. GAAP financial measures.

Recent Developments

Acquisition of Teads

On August 1, 2024, we entered into a definitive share purchase agreement (the “Share Purchase Agreement”) with Altice Teads S.A. (the “Seller” or “Altice Teads”), a public limited liability company ( société anonyme ) incorporated and existing under the laws of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the sole shareholder of Legacy Teads, and Legacy Teads. Pursuant to the Share Purchase Agreement, we agreed to acquire all of the issued and outstanding share capital of Legacy Teads on the terms and conditions set forth in the Share Purchase Agreement. On February 3, 2025, the parties entered into Amendment No. 1 to the Share Purchase Agreement, which revised certain terms of the Share Purchase Agreement, including the consideration paid at the closing of the Acquisition.

On February 3, 2025, we completed the Acquisition for an aggregate closing day consideration of approximately $0.9 billion, including $625 million in cash, subject to certain customary adjustments, and 43.75 million shares of Common Stock . Following the closing, the Seller owned approximately 46.6% of the Company’s issued and outstanding shares of Common Stock (based on the amount of issued and outstanding shares of Common Stock as of December 31, 2024) and continues to own this approximate percentage as of the filing date of this Report. We believe that the Acquisition created one of the largest Open Internet advertising platforms, which is differentiated by our ability to drive outcomes for awareness, consideration, and performance objectives, across CTV, web and mobile applications.

For the year ended December 31, 2025, we recorded Acquisition and integration costs of approximately $28.9 million. See Note 2 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information on the Acquisition.

2025 Restructuring Plans

During the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025, the Company initiated two distinct restructuring plans to streamline operations and align its cost structure with its strategic priorities.

Acquisition Integration Plan (February 2025)

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On February 3, 2025, in connection with the completion of the Acquisition, the Company announced a restructuring plan (the “Plan”), as part of its efforts to streamline operations and reduce duplication of roles. The Plan involved a reduction in workforce of approximately 15%. The actions associated with the employee restructuring under the Plan were initiated in February 2025, were implemented in large part in the second quarter of 2025 and were substantially completed in the third quarter of 2025. The Company incurred pre-tax charges totaling $9.6 million in 2025, primarily consisting of severance and other related payments.

Strategic Restructuring Plan (December 2025)

Subsequently, on December 3, 2025, the Company commenced a broader strategic restructuring plan (the “Strategic Plan”) intended to reduce operating costs, improve operating margins and advance the Company’s commitment to profitable growth. The Strategic Plan involves a reduction of the Company’s global workforce by approximately 10%.

We estimate that we will incur approximately $8.0 million to $12.0 million in charges in connection with the Strategic Plan, substantially all of which are expected to be future cash expenditures. These charges consist primarily of notice period and severance payments and employee benefits. We recognized approximately $5.7 million of these charges in the fourth quarter of 2025 and expect to incur the remainder primarily in the first half of 2026.

We expect the Strategic Plan to result in annualized savings of approximately $35.0 million to $40.0 million when fully implemented. We expect the actions associated with the Strategic Plan to be substantially complete in the first half year of 2026, subject to local law and consultation requirements.

Actual charges and the timing of the estimated savings associated with the Strategic Plan may differ materially from our assumptions due to a number of factors, including local labor law requirements and the outcome of consultation processes in Europe and other jurisdictions.

Credit Agreements

In connection with the entry into the Share Purchase Agreement on August 1, 2024, the Company entered into a debt commitment letter, dated August 1, 2024, with Goldman Sachs Bank USA, Jefferies Finance LLC and Mizuho Bank, LTD, pursuant to which these parties committed to provide (i) a $100 million senior secured revolving credit facility and (ii) a senior secured bridge facility in an aggregate principal amount of up to $750 million.

Subsequently, on February 3, 2025 (the “Credit Facilities Closing Date” or “Acquisition Closing Date”), in connection with the completion of the Acquisition, the Company and our wholly-owned subsidiary, OT Midco Inc. (“Midco”), entered into a credit agreement (the “Credit Agreement”) among the Company, Midco, the additional borrowers party thereto from time to time, Goldman Sachs Bank USA, as sole administrative agent and swingline lender, U.S. Bank Trust Company, National Association, as the collateral agent, and the lenders, issuing banks and arrangers party thereto from time to time. The Credit Agreement provided for (a) a super senior secured revolving credit facility in an aggregate principal amount of $100.0 million (the “2025 Revolving Facility”) and (b) a senior secured bridge term loan credit facility in an aggregate principal amount of $625.0 million (the “Bridge Facility” and, together with the 2025 Revolving Facility, the “Credit Facilities”). See the “Liquidity and Capital Resources” section below and Note 9 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information regarding the Credit Facilities. On the Credit Facilities Closing Date, Midco borrowed $625 million in aggregate principal amount under the Bridge Facility (the “Bridge Loans”). The proceeds of the Bridge Loans were used to finance the consideration for the Acquisition and to pay related transaction fees, costs and expenses. The 2025 Revolving Facility may be used for working capital and other general corporate purposes of the Company and its subsidiaries.

Further, on the Credit Facilities Closing Date, in connection with the entry into the Credit Agreement described above, the Company terminated the Second Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement, dated as of November 2, 2021, by and among the Company, Silicon Valley Bank, a division of First-Citizens Bank & Trust Company, Zemanta Holding USA Inc. and Zemanta Inc.

Senior Secured Notes

On February 11, 2025, Midco completed a private offering (the “Offering”) of $637.5 million in aggregate principal amount of 10.000% senior secured notes due 2030 (the “Notes”) at an issue price of 98.087% of the principal amount thereof in a transaction exempt from registration under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the “Securities Act”). See the “Liquidity and Capital Resources” section below and Note 9 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information regarding the Notes.

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The proceeds from the Offering were used, together with cash on hand, to repay in full and cancel the indebtedness incurred under the Bridge Facility, including accrued and unpaid interest thereon, that was used to finance and pay costs related to the Acquisition, as well as pay fees and expenses incurred in connection with the Offering and the Bridge Facility refinancing.

On June 17, 2025, the Company completed the repurchase of $9.3 million aggregate principal amount of the Notes for $8.0 million in cash, including accrued interest, representing a discount of approximately 17% to the principal amount of the repurchased Notes.

Impairment of vi

In March 2025, in connection with the post-merger integration of the newly acquired Legacy Teads business, we made a decision to discontinue the video product offering associated with our prior acquisition of video intelligence AG. Accordingly, during the twelve months ended December 31, 2025, we recorded impairment charges totaling $15.5 million to fully write off the associated intangible assets and capitalized software, as further described in Note 5 and 6 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements.

Goodwill Impairment

In the fourth quarter of 2025, we completed our annual goodwill impairment test for the Company, as a single reporting unit, in accordance with ASC 350, Intangibles - Goodwill and Other (“ASC 350”). During the same period, a sustained decline in our stock price resulted in a significant reduction in our market capitalization, indicating that a potential impairment existed under ASC 350. We estimated the reporting unit’s fair value using a combination of income and market approaches. Based on this assessment, which incorporated current macroeconomic conditions, long‑term growth and margin expectations, and elevated discount rates, we concluded that the carrying amount of the reporting unit exceeded its estimated fair value. As a result, we recorded a non‑cash goodwill impairment charge of $352.1 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025.

The impairment charge does not affect our cash flows, liquidity, or compliance with debt covenants, nor does it impact our ability to execute our operating or investment plans. We will continue to monitor the reporting unit’s performance and relevant market conditions in future periods and will perform additional impairment testing if events or changes in circumstances indicate that it is more likely than not that the reporting unit’s fair value is below its carrying amount, as further described in Note 5 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements.

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Conditions in Israel

Many of our employees, including certain members of our management team and the Board, operate from our offices in Israel. Accordingly, political, economic and military conditions in Israel and the surrounding region directly affect our business and operations. Following the October 7, 2023 attacks by Hamas terrorists on Israel’s southern border, Israel declared war against Hamas and since then, Israel has been involved in military conflicts with Hamas, Hezbollah (a terrorist organization based in Lebanon) and Iran, both directly and through proxies like the Houthi movement in Yemen and armed groups in Iraq and other terrorist organizations. Additionally, following the fall of the Assad regime in Syria, Israel has conducted limited military operations targeting the Syrian army, Iranian military assets and infrastructure linked to Hezbollah and other Iran-supported groups. Although certain cease-fire agreements have been reached with Hamas and Lebanon (with respect to Hezbollah), and some Iranian proxies have declared a halt to their attacks, there is no assurance that these agreements will be upheld. Military activity and hostilities continue to exist at varying levels of intensity, and the situation remains volatile, with the potential for escalation into a broader regional conflict involving additional terrorist organizations and possibly other countries. Also, the fall of the Assad regime in Syria may create geopolitical instability in the region.

In June 2025, direct hostilities broke out between Israel and Iran, involving significant missile and drone strikes exchanged between the two countries. This escalation and other regional events have heightened regional instability and increased security risks across Israel. These events have resulted in significant travel restrictions, facility closures and shelter-in-place orders, including remote work measures, in various locations, and may further impact critical infrastructure, supply chains, and the broader Israeli economy. In October 2025, a cease-fire was brokered between Israel and Hamas. However, we cannot predict if and to what extent this cease-fire will remain in effect or be upheld.

More recently, in February 2026, hostilities between Israel and Iran escalated again. In late February 2026, Israel, together with the U.S., conducted a major joint military campaign involving air and missile strikes against targets in Iran. These actions triggered a broad Iranian response and contributed to significant regional instability. The situation remains highly fluid, and we are unable to predict when, or on what terms, this escalation will be resolved.

The draft of Israeli military reservists, as well as the evacuation of Israeli citizens from areas near conflict zones have adversely affected our employees impacted by such actions. In addition, future government-imposed restrictions and precautions in response to such conflicts may negatively impact our employees, management and directors by interrupting their ability to effectively perform their roles and responsibilities. In addition, further hostilities involving Israel, could lead to damage to facilities and infrastructure, increased cyber attacks, the interruption or curtailment of trade between Israel and its trading partners, and/or the willingness to do business with companies with operations in Israel. Furthermore, macroeconomic indications of the deterioration of Israel’s economic standing as reflected in the downgrading of Israel’s credit rating by rating agencies (such as Moody’s, S&P Global and Fitch) could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations and could make it more difficult for us to raise capital. The intensity and duration of the conflict between Israel and Hamas and the sustainability of the related cease-fire, the conflict involving Israel, the U.S., Iran and surrounding nations, as well as the conflicts with Hezbollah and other terror organizations and Iran and other countries are difficult to predict and we are continuing to monitor the situation and assessing its potential impact on our business.

We cannot attribute the impact of the current trends in advertising demand to any particular factor, including the conditions in Israel, and cannot predict the impact if the war continues or escalates further. See Item 1A “Risk Factors” included in this Report for more information regarding certain risks associated with the conditions in Israel.

Recent Trends, Risks and Uncertainties

Together with those risk factors we have identified in this Report, we have identified the following important factors that could impact our future financial performance or condition:

Following the Acquisition, we faced operational challenges in returning to growth while implementing the complex integration of two similarly scaled companies. In response, during the second half of 2025, we restructured our go-to-market organization and implemented several measures related to our organizational leadership, structure and processes. These changes have resulted in measurable improvements in leading indicators. We are seeing an increase in new business-generating meetings, a growing pipeline, and a shift in the trajectory of cross-sell revenue. Despite this progress in early-stage metrics, the impact of these improvements on revenue is nascent and has been influenced by factors such as macroeconomic volatility, increased competition, advertiser volatility, and agency relationships in certain geographies and verticals.

We are facing a changing ecosystem, including declining traffic trends on the traditional publisher side of the Open Internet and increased competition on the demand side. The proliferation of generative AI tools, particularly their integration into major search engines and web browsers, is causing a shift in how users discover and consume content online. These tools can provide

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users with direct answers and AI-generated summaries which has reduced their need to click through to original publisher websites. This trend of bypassing the traditional user journey to a publisher’s site has led to a decline in direct user traffic. For a representative segment of our premium publisher partners, we have observed this trend result in an approximate 10% to 15% decline in paid page views. A reduction in traffic to our media partners directly decreases the inventory of advertising impressions available for us to monetize which has affected and continues to affect our revenue and results of operations.

Our legacy Outbrain DSP business also experienced headwinds, including from the clean-up of underperforming supply partners and other quality control changes. These changes had a meaningful impact, with a small but impactful number of customers reducing their spend on our platform year over year.

During the third quarter, we engaged an external consulting firm to conduct a comprehensive review of our business to identify opportunities to restore growth and improve profitability. This review provided analysis and specific implementation plans regarding the rationalization of our business portfolio, our operational and organizational structure, and potential further efficiencies, which were converted into detailed execution plans, including the Strategic Plan announced in December 2025 and the realignment of our commercial and product teams around distinct growth pillars .

Macroeconomic Environment

General worldwide economic conditions have experienced significant instability, as well as volatility and disruption in the financial markets, resulting from factors including geopolitical tensions, including the effects of the Russia-Ukraine and Israel-Hamas conflicts (and the uncertainty regarding the sustainability of the related cease-fire), the conflict involving Israel, the U.S., Iran and surrounding nations, general unrest in Europe, regional instability in Venezuela, instability in the Middle East following the collapse of the Assad regime in Syria, as well as other geopolitical tensions and uncertainties, tariffs and trade wars, new and proposed legislation or government shutdowns in the U.S., general economic uncertainty, inflation, fluctuations in U.S. and global interest rates, recessionary concerns, bank failures or volatility in the financial services sector, currency exchange rate fluctuations, global supply chain disruptions, and labor market volatility. The global economy is also experiencing heightened uncertainty in part due to market reactions to changes in tariff policies, which have the potential to further exacerbate inflationary pressures, with the duration of any such impact remaining uncertain. These conditions have negatively impacted our advertisers and, as a result, our business and could, if they continue or worsen further, adversely impact us in the future, including if our advertisers were to reduce or further reduce their advertising spending as a result of any of these factors. We continue to monitor our operations, and the operations of those in our ecosystem (including media partners, advertisers, and agencies), but these conditions make it difficult for us, our media partners, advertisers, and agencies to accurately forecast and plan future business activities and they could cause a further reduction or delay in overall advertising demand and spending or impact our advertisers’ ability to pay, any of which would negatively impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Factors Affecting Our Business

Advertiser Retention and Growth

Our growth is partially driven by retaining and expanding the amount of spend by advertisers on our platform and by acquiring new advertisers. Our total addressable market includes top, middle, and bottom of the marketing funnel, which allows us to attract diverse, premium demand. We view our full-funnel offering of both branding and performance capabilities as an opportunity to increase advertiser and agency spend on our platform. We invest in our relationships with agencies, both on a local and global basis, aligning on mutually beneficial service level agreements, and building products that help to solve their goals and streamline their operations. In addition, our joint business partnerships (“JBPs”) with large enterprise brands represent a significant overall portion of our revenue and are strategic for driving advertiser retention and growth.

We continually invest in enhancements to our platform that allow advertisers to drive concrete business outcomes and ROAS. In particular, we are expanding our use of AI to automate manual tasks in campaign setup and optimization, while enhancing advertiser creative and overall performance. We also support advertisers with developing creative ads across formats, as a value added service to our advertisers.

Advertiser budgets and pricing on our platform fluctuate from period to period for a variety of reasons, including advertiser-specific cycles and preferences, quality of performance and ROAS, supply and demand balance, macroeconomic conditions, and seasonality. In order to grow our revenue and Ex-TAC Gross Profit and maximize value for our advertisers and media partners, our focus as a business is on driving business outcomes and ROAS for advertisers.

For the year ended December 31, 2025, tens of thousands of unique advertisers were active on our owned and operated platforms, in addition to the thousands of advertisers who access the platform through programmatic partnerships.

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Retention and Growth of Relationships with Media Partners

We rely on our relationships with our media partners for our advertising inventory and our corresponding ability to drive advertising revenue. To further strengthen these relationships, we continuously invest in our technology and product functionality to drive user engagement and monetization by taking steps designed to (i) improve our algorithms, referred to as our AI prediction engine; (ii) attract and procure relevant demand; (iii) expand the adoption of our enhanced products by media partners; and (iv) expand our demand capabilities to new formats.

Our relationships with our media partners are typically long-term and strategic in nature, providing us with valuable ad inventory, often on an exclusive basis. Our top 20 media partners leveraged our platform for an average of 7 years (based on 2025 revenue).

Our growth depends on media partners’ ability to drive traffic to their sites, apps or other properties. The proliferation of social media properties, streaming services and other platforms, as well as the adoption of AI have negatively impacted and may continue to negatively impact the growth of key segments of our media partners, namely digital publishers. At the same time, the trends in user engagement create new opportunities and further needs from the media partners for our solutions to engage users and enhance monetization.

Expansion Into New Environments, New Experiences and New Ad Formats

The available mediums and formats for consumers to engage with media has greatly expanded over the last several years. As this evolution in media consumption and consumer behavior continues, we are focused on utilizing our AI prediction technology to bring curated, relevant consumer experiences to these new devices, experiences and formats.

Fundamentally, we plan to continue to make our platform available for media partners on all types of devices and platforms and evolve our business to apply our technology to the most popular methods of media consumption, such as CTV environments including HomeScreen advertising placements.

Examples of environments in which content consumption is expected to grow include CTV, online video, mobile in-app environments, and within Large Language Models (“LLMs”) interfaces. Our omnichannel outcomes platform enables advertisers to not only reach their audiences across the broad digital advertising ecosystem — from web, to CTV, to app environments — but to drive outcomes from those audiences at each step of the marketing funnel.

The development and deployment of new ad formats and further penetrating new and growing environments, allow us to better serve advertisers who seek to target and engage consumers at scale. We believe this continues to open and grow new types of advertiser demand, while ensuring relevance of the environments in which we operate.

User Engagement and Driving Desired Outcomes

Driving outcomes is a key pillar of our platform that drives value for media partners and advertisers. Our AI prediction engine manages this dynamic, matching consumers with editorial and advertiser experiences that will deliver desired outcomes across the digital advertising ecosystem.

The ability to deliver on outcomes for our media partners and advertisers is driven by several factors, including enhancements to our AI prediction engine, growth in the breadth and depth of our data assets, the size and quality of our content and advertising index, user engagement, new media partners, expansion on existing media partners and expansion to new media environments and formats. As we expand and invest, we are able to further maximize our efficacy across different screens and devices, support brands effectively across the lifecycle of their needs, and collect and connect more data and, as a result, continually improve our prediction engines, which drives better results for our advertiser and media owner partners.

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Investment in Our Technology and Infrastructure

Innovation is a core tenet of our Company and our industry. The dynamic and continuously evolving nature of the digital advertising ecosystem will be significantly impacted by the use of AI in further driving innovative new technologies and solutions. We plan to continue our investments in our people, our technology, and moreover our people’s use of AI in order to retain and enhance our competitive position. For example, improvements to our AI prediction engine or use of additional data signals, helps us deliver more relevant ads, driving higher user engagement, thereby improving ROAS or other desired outcomes for advertisers and increasing monetization for our media partners.

We believe in the transformative power of AI in shaping the future of sustainable media, and we are powered by our deep expertise in using predictive AI technology for years to empower both media owners and advertisers in their businesses. We leverage predictive AI in a manner designed to enable media owners to increase their revenues and connect with audiences on their own platforms. We use machine learning to predict consumer interest and propensity to convert ads to sales. Our technology has developed into a robust AI machine learning system and is largely homegrown by our Research and Development team. One of the strongest long-term levers in our business is the continuous improvement of our algorithms and the data sets our algorithms learn from. Our direct integrations across our media partners’ properties provide us with a large volume of proprietary first-party data, including context, user interest and behavioral signals. The more data points we have, the better we believe our advertisers’ ROAS and yield potential can be.

Our dynamic placement optimization and ad serving technology dynamically adjusts both the arrangement and the formats of content delivered to a user, depending on the user’s preferences and a media partner’s key performance indicators, designed to provide a tailored and engaging experience. We continue to invest in media partner and advertiser focused tools, technology, and products as well as privacy-centric solutions.

Industry Dynamics

Demand for Outcomes Across the Funnel

Our business depends on the overall demand for digital advertising, on the continuous success of our current and prospective media partners, and on general market conditions. Digital advertising is a rapidly growing industry, with growth that has outpaced the growth of the broader advertising industry. Content consumption continues to evolve, requiring media owners to adapt in order to successfully attract, engage and monetize their consumers. As audiences are increasingly engaged across digital media platforms, and as more purchase data is created, collected, integrated and analyzed digitally, advertisers are increasingly able to leverage sophisticated measurement and attribution solutions in order to optimize their advertising spend across the marketing funnel. As a result, advertisers are increasingly shifting spend away from legacy media offerings towards data-based solutions, driven by performance-centric metrics. We believe that our strength in delivering engagement and clear outcomes for advertisers, from high-impact branding to lower-funnel performance, built on our proprietary AI prediction engine, aligns well with the ongoing market shift towards increased accountability and expectations of ROAS from digital advertising spend.

The Role of AI in Content and Personalization

AI is revolutionizing content creation, distribution, and personalization; automating tasks like video editing, image recognition, and language translation. AI-powered systems are also improving content delivery, helping media platforms suggest relevant movies, shows, articles, and advertisements to consumers. This is especially important at a time when advertisers increasingly anticipate measurable results from their digital advertising investments. We believe that our experience in this space enables us to more nimbly capitalize on the opportunities for media owners and advertisers to leverage AI and automation to engage consumers and optimize their business goals. For additional information regarding our strategic approach to these technologies, see “Item 1. Business—Industry” and “Item 1A. Risk Factors” included in this Report.

Generative AI and Search Trends

At the same time, the proliferation of generative AI tools, particularly their integration into major search engines and web browsers, is causing a shift in how users discover and consume content online. These tools can provide users with direct answers and AI-generated summaries, which has reduced their need to click through to original publisher websites. This trend of bypassing the traditional user journey to a publisher’s site could lead to a significant decline in direct user traffic. A reduction in traffic to our media partners directly decreases the inventory of advertising impressions available for us to monetize, which has affected, and could in the future have a significant effect on, our revenue and results of operations. For additional information regarding the impact of these trends and the related risks to our business, see “Item 1. Business—Industry” and “Item 1A. Risk Factors” included in this Report.

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Regulatory and Platform Changes

Regulators across most developed markets are increasingly focused on enacting and enforcing user privacy rules as well as exerting tighter oversight on the major “walled garden” platforms. Industry participants have recently been, and likely will continue to be, impacted by changes implemented by platform leaders, such as Apple’s change to its Identifier for Advertisers policy and Google’s evolving roadmap pertaining to the use of third-party cookies within its Chrome web browser. See “Item 1. Business—Industry”, “Item 1. Business—Regulatory Environment”, and “Item 1A. Risk Factors” included in this Report for additional information regarding changing industry dynamics with respect to industry participants and the regulatory environment.

Seasonality

The global advertising industry experiences seasonal trends that affect most participants in the digital advertising ecosystem. Our revenue generally fluctuates from quarter to quarter as a result of a variety of factors, including seasonality, as many advertisers allocate the largest portion of their budgets to the fourth quarter of the calendar year to coincide with increased holiday purchasing, as well as the timing of advertising budget cycles. Historically, the fourth quarter of the year has reflected the highest levels of advertiser spending, and the first quarter generally has reflected the lowest level of advertiser spending.

In addition, expenditures by advertisers tend to be cyclical and discretionary in nature, reflecting changes in brand advertising strategy, budgeting constraints, and buying patterns, and a variety of other factors, many of which are outside of our control. The quarterly rate of increase in our traffic acquisition costs is generally commensurate with the quarterly rate of increase in our revenue. However, traffic acquisition costs have, at times, grown at a faster or slower rate than revenue, primarily due to the mix of the revenue generated or contracted terms with media partners. We generally expect these seasonal trends to continue, though historical seasonality may not be predictive of future results given the potential for changes in advertising buying patterns and macroeconomic conditions. These trends will affect our operating results and we expect our revenue to continue to fluctuate based on seasonal factors that affect the advertising industry as a whole.

Definitions of Financial and Performance Measures

Revenue

We generate revenue primarily from advertisers who purchase media inventory from us to deliver digital advertising across a broad range of environments, including web, mobile app, online video, and CTV. Advertisers buy media through our platform using multiple buying models, including cost‑per‑click (“CPC”), cost‑per‑thousand impressions (“CPM”), video completion‑based pricing, and other outcome‑based formats.

Revenue is recognized when an advertisement is delivered or when the specified outcome—such as an impression, click, completed video view, or other measurable event as defined in the contract—occurs. The nature of the outcome depends on the campaign objective and the applicable pricing model.

In most arrangements, we act as the principal in the transaction because we control the advertising inventory before it is transferred to the advertiser. In these cases, we recognize revenue on a gross basis for the amount billed to the advertiser. In certain arrangements, where we do not control the advertising inventory prior to transfer, we act as an agent and recognize revenue on a net basis.

Our revenue is impacted by the level of advertiser demand for our products and by the volume, quality, and performance of available advertising inventory. Demand fluctuates based on macroeconomic conditions, seasonal advertising patterns, campaign performance, brand and performance marketing budgets, and advertiser ROAS expectations. As advertisers achieve their desired ROAS on our platform, they may increase budgets or expand usage of our full‑funnel solutions over time.

We continue to expand and introduce new platform features that are adopted by our advertisers, expand our omnichannel capabilities, extend our reach to more CTV, video offerings, and other inventory and add additional customers whose businesses may have different underlying business models.

Our agreements with advertisers provide them with considerable flexibility to modify their overall budget, price (cost-per-click, cost-per-impression), and the ads they wish to deliver on our platform, which can impact the timing and amount of revenue recognized.

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Traffic Acquisition Costs

We define traffic acquisition costs (“TAC”) as amounts owed to media partners for the purchase of inventory. We incur costs with our media partners, which may be publishers, third-party intermediaries, or other parties such as original equipment manufacturers, in the period in which certain actions, such as click-throughs, impressions or views occur. Such costs due to media partners are based on the media partners’ contractual revenue share, programmatic bidding or guaranteed minimums based on certain media partner conditions. In some circumstances, we incur costs based on a guaranteed minimum payment, which may be based on either impressions, page views or a fixed amount if the partner reaches certain performance targets, in exchange for guaranteed placement on specified portions of the media partners’ online properties. As such, traffic acquisition costs may not correlate with fluctuations in revenue, as our costs may remain fixed even with a decrease in revenue. Traffic acquisition costs also include amounts payable to media partners whose supply is purchased programmatically.

Other Cost of Revenue

Other cost of revenue consists of costs related to the management of our data centers, hosting fees, data connectivity costs, research and insight costs, and depreciation and amortization. Other cost of revenue also includes the amortization of capitalized software that is developed or obtained for internal use associated with our revenue-generating technologies and amortization of intangible assets.

Operating Expenses

Our operating expenses consist of research and development, sales and marketing and general and administrative expenses. The largest component of our operating expenses is personnel costs. Personnel costs consist of wages, benefits, bonuses, stock-based compensation and, with respect to sales and marketing expenses, sales commissions.

Research and Development. Research and development expenses are related to the development and enhancement of our platform and consist primarily of personnel and the related overhead costs, amortization of capitalized software for non-revenue generating infrastructure and facilities costs.

Sales and Marketing. Sales and marketing expenses consist primarily of personnel and the related overhead costs for personnel engaged in marketing, advertising, client services, and promotional activities. These expenses also include advertising and promotional spend on media, conferences, and other events to market our services, and facilities costs.

General and Administrative. General and administrative expenses consist primarily of personnel and the related overhead costs, professional fees, facilities costs, insurance, and certain taxes other than income taxes. General and administrative personnel costs include, among others, our executive, finance, human resources, information technology and legal functions. Our professional service fees consist primarily of accounting, audit, tax, legal, information technology and other consulting costs, including costs relating to the Acquisition, as well as our compliance with Sarbanes-Oxley Act requirements.

Impairment of Intangible Assets . Impairment of intangible assets primarily consist of impairments of long-lived assets and capitalized software associated with the discontinuance of the video product offering associated with vi during the first quarter of 2025.

Goodwill Impairment . Goodwill impairment represents a non‑cash charge resulting from a decline in the estimated fair value of goodwill recognized from prior acquisitions, including the Acquisition. This charge does not reflect ongoing operating performance and is excluded from certain financial and performance measures.

Restructuring Charges . Restructuring charges include non‑recurring severance and related costs incurred in connection with (i) the workforce reduction announced following the Acquisition in February 2025, and (ii) the strategic restructuring plan initiated in December 2025 to streamline operations and reduce costs. These charges are not reflective of ongoing operating performance and are excluded from certain financial and performance measures.

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Other (Expense) Income, Net

Other (expense) income, net is comprised of gains on repurchases of our long-term debt, interest expense, and other (expense) income and interest income, net.

Gain on Repurchase of Long-Term Debt. On June 17, 2025, we completed the repurchase of $9.3 million aggregate principal amount of the Notes for approximately $8.0 million in cash, including accrued interest, at a discount of approximately 17% to the principal amount and recorded a pre-tax gain of approximately $1.2 million. In September 2024, we repurchased the remaining $118.0 million of our 2.95% Convertible Senior Notes due 2026 (“Convertible Notes”) at a discount of approximately 7.5% of the principal amount and recorded a pre-tax gain of $8.8 million.

Interest Expense.  Interest expense consists of interest and fees on the Bridge Facility drawn and repaid during the first quarter of 2025, interest on our Notes, the Overdraft Facility (as defined below) assumed in the Acquisition, our revolving credit facilities, our previously outstanding convertible notes, and amortization of the related discount and deferred financing fees. Interest expense may increase if we incur any borrowings under our 2025 Revolving Facility or if we enter into new debt facilities or finance lease arrangements.

Other (Expense) Income and Interest Income, net. Other (expense) income and interest income, net primarily consists of interest earned on our cash, cash equivalents and investments in marketable securities, discount amortization on our investments in marketable securities, and foreign currency exchange gains and losses. Foreign currency exchange gains and losses, both realized and unrealized, relate to transactions and monetary asset and liability balances denominated in currencies other than the functional currencies, including mark-to-market adjustments on undesignated foreign exchange forward contracts. Foreign currency gains and losses may continue to fluctuate in the future due to changes in foreign currency exchange rates.

Provision for Income Taxes

Provision for income taxes c onsists of federal and state income taxes in the United States and income taxes in certain foreign juris dictions, as well as deferred incom e taxes and changes in valuation allowance, reflecting the net tax effects of temporary differences between the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities for financial reporting purposes and the amounts used for income tax purposes.

Realization of our deferred tax assets depends on the generation of future taxable income. In considering the need for a valuation allowance, we consider our historical and future projected taxable income, as well as other objectively verifiable evidence, including our realization of tax attributes, assessment of tax credits and utilization of net operating loss carryforwards.

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Results of Operations

We have one operating segment, which is also our reportable segment. The following table sets forth our results of operations for the periods presented:

Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Consolidated Statements of Operations:

Revenue

Cost of revenue:

Traffic acquisition costs

Other cost of revenue

Total cost of revenue

Gross profit

Operating expenses:

Research and development

Sales and marketing

General and administrative

Impairment of intangible assets

Goodwill impairment

Restructuring charges

Total operating expenses

Loss from operations

Other income (expense)

Gain on repurchase of long-term debt

Interest expense

Other (expense) income and interest income, net

Total other (expense) income, net

(Loss) income before provision for income taxes

Provision for income taxes

Net loss

Other Financial Data:

Research and development as % of revenue

Sales and marketing as % of revenue

General and administrative as % of revenue

Ex-TAC Gross Profit (1)

Adjusted EBITDA (1)

(1) Ex-TAC Gross Profit and Adjusted EBITDA are non-GAAP financial measures. See “Non-GAAP Reconciliations” in this Report for the definitions and limitations of these measures, and reconciliations to the most comparable U.S. GAAP financial measures.

Year Ended December 31, 2025 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2024

Revenue

Revenue increased $410.6 million, or 46.1%, to $1,300.5 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025, compared to $889.9 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2024. Revenue for 2025 included net favorable foreign currency effects of approximately $15.5 million, and increased $395.1 million, or 44.4%, on a constant currency basis, compared to the prior year period.

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Our reported increases in revenue for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025 were primarily attributable to incremental revenues from the Acquisition of $517.2 million, offset in part by lower revenues of $106.6 million from the legacy Outbrain business. The decline in legacy Outbrain revenue was primarily driven by lower ad impressions from certain media partners and reduced revenue from select legacy products. See “Non-GAAP Reconciliations” for information regarding the constant currency measures provided in this discussion and below to supplement our reported results.

Cost of Revenue and Gross Profit

Traffic acquisition costs — Traffic acquisition costs increased $117.1 million, or 17.9%, to $770.8 million in 2025, compared to $653.7 million in the prior year period. Traffic acquisition costs for 2025 included net unfavorable foreign currency effects of approximately $13.5 million, and increased $103.6 million, or 15.8%, on a constant currency basis, compared to the prior year period.

The increase was primarily attributable to $214.3 million incurred in connection with the Acquisition, offset in part by a $97.2 million decrease in traffic acquisition costs related to Outbrain, which was consistent with the decline in Outbrain revenues during the period. As a percentage of revenue, traffic acquisition costs decreased year over year, primarily reflecting the revenue mix impact of the Acquisition and lower traffic acquisition costs associated with the Outbrain business.

Other cost of revenue — increased $56.6 million, or 128.4%, to $100.6 million in 2025, compared to $44.0 million in the prior year peri od . The increase was primarily attributable to $53.6 million of the other cost of revenue associated with the Acquisition and includes costs incurred from the Acquisition date onward. The remaining increase primarily reflected higher operating and infrastructure‑related costs associated with supporting the expanded business and integration costs following the Acquisition.

Gross profit — increased $237.0 million, or 123.3%, to $429.1 million in 2025, compared to $192.1 million in 2024. Gross profit for 2025 included net favorable foreign currency effects of approximately $1.9 million, and increased $235.0 million, or 122.4%, on a constant currency basis, compared to the prior year period.

The increase was primarily attributable to $249.3 million associated with the Acquisition, offset in part by a $12.3 million decrease related to Outbrain, primarily reflecting lower revenues during the twelve months ended December 31, 2025.

Ex-TAC Gross Profit

Our Ex-TAC Gross Profit increased $293.5 million, or 124.3%, to $529.7 million in 2025, from $236.1 million in 2024. Ex-TAC Gross Profit for 2025 included net favorable foreign currency effects of approximately $1.9 million, and increased $291.6 million, or 123.5%, on a constant currency basis, compared to the prior year period.

The increase was primarily attributable to $302.9 million associated with the Acquisition, offset in part by a $9.4 million decrease related to Outbrain, primarily reflecting lower revenues during the twelve months ended December 31, 2025.

Operating Expenses

Operating expenses increased by $623.3 million, or 304.5%, to $828.1 million in 2025, from $204.7 million in 2024 . The reported increase was primarily attributable to the impact of the Acquisition, including acquisition and integration costs, impairment charges of goodwill and intangible assets during the twelve months ended December 31, 2025 .

The components of operating expenses are discussed below:

Research and development expenses — increased $6.5 million in 2025 compared to the prior year period. The increase was primarily driven by $15.0 million of research and development expenses attributable to the Acquisition and includes costs incurred from the Acquisition date onward. This increase was partially offset by a $8.5 million decrease in R&D expenses within the Outbrain business, reflecting compensation and contractor cost reductions following restructuring actions and efforts to centralize certain R&D activities and processes after the Acquisition.

Sales and marketing expenses — increased $180.4 million in 2025 compared to the prior year period. The increase was primarily attributable to $182.1 million of sales and marketing expenses associated with the Acquisition and includes costs incurred from the acquisition date onward. Sales and marketing expenses within the Outbrain business decreased modestly during the period, primarily reflecting lower compensation and commission costs following restructuring actions implemented in connection with the Acquisition.

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General and administrative expenses — increased $54.1 million in 2025 compared to the prior year period. The increase was primarily attributable to $32.3 of million general and administrative expenses incurred in connection with the Acquisition and includes costs incurred from the Acquisition date onward. The remaining increase was primarily driven by higher non‑compensation expenses within the Outbrain business, including transaction and post‑merger integration costs, increased professional fees, and higher tax expenses. These increases were partially offset by lower compensation‑related costs following restructuring and headcount reductions implemented in connection with the Acquisition.

Impairment of intangible assets — were $15.6 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025 , and were largely attributable to the full impairment of the carrying values of the definite-lived intangible assets associated with our previously acquired vi business, in connection with our decision to discontinue the related video product offering as part of our post-merger integration following the Acquisition ( see Notes 5 and 6 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information).

Goodwill impairment — The Company recorded a non‑cash goodwill impairment charge of $352.1 million during 2025. There was no goodwill impairment charge in the prior year period. The impairment was recorded based on a quantitative goodwill impairment assessment performed. The charge primarily related to goodwill recognized in connection with the Acquisition (see Note 5 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information).

Restructuring charges —increased $14.5 million in 2025 compared to the prior year period. The increase was primarily attributable to termination-related costs associated with two workforce reduction actions under the Company’s strategic restructuring plans, which were announced on February 3 and December 3, 2025 (see Note 3 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information).

Other Income (Expense)

Gain on repurchase of long-term debt — In June 2025, we completed the repurchase of $9.3 million aggregate principal amount of the Notes for approximately $8.0 million in cash, including accrued interest, representing a discount of approximately 17% to the principal amount of the repurchased Notes. As a result, we realized a pre-tax gain of approximately $1.2 million within other income in our consolidated statements of operations for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025 . During the twelve months ended December 31, 2024 , we recorded a pre-tax gain of approximately $8.8 million in connection with our repurchase of the remaining $118.0 million aggregate principal amount of Convertible Notes in September 2024.

Interest expense — increased $71.5 million to $75.1 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025, from $3.6 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2024. This increase was primarily driven by $59.7 million of interest expense on the Notes, including interest and amortization of the related discount and deferred financing fees, as well as $13.3 million of fees and interest related to the Bridge Facility, which was drawn to finance the cash portion of the Acquisition consideration and subsequently repaid with the proceeds from the Notes in February 2025. These increases were partially offset by reduced interest expense of $2.5 million due to the repurchase of the previously outstanding Convertible Notes.

Other (expense) income and interest income, net — decreased $14.0 million to net other expense of $4.8 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025, compared to net other income of $9.2 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2024. This decrease was primarily attributable to increased foreign currency losses of $12.3 million resulting from the remeasurement of transactions denominated in currencies other than the functional currencies and lower investment income of $5.0 million.

Provision for Income Taxes

Provision for income taxes was $39.4 million in 2025, compared to $2.4 million in 2024. The increase in 2025 was primarily due to an increase in valuation allowance and a new liability related to unremitted foreign earnings recorded in 2025, partially offset by anticipated foreign branch tax credits recorded in 2025, lower tax rates in certain foreign jurisdictions in 2025, and a pre-tax loss in 2025 as compared to pre-tax income in 2024. Our effective tax rate was (8.2)% in 2025 compared to 141.7% in 2024, primarily due to the limited pre-tax income in 2024 magnifying the impact of certain unfavorable tax rate reconciling items such as non-deductible costs in 2024 as compared to 2025, partially offset by an increase in valuation allowance coupled with a pre-tax loss in 2025.

On July 4, 2025, the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (the “OBBBA”) was enacted into law in the U.S., with certain provisions of the OBBBA effective in 2025 and others becoming effective in 2026 and beyond. The OBBBA amends U.S. tax law including provisions related to bonus depreciation, interest deduction limitations, research and development, and foreign derived intangible income. The OBBBA provisions did not have a material impact on the Company’s total tax benefits or expense for

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the period ended December 31, 2025 but will result in lower cash taxes due to a favorable change to the U.S. interest expense limitation regime, which allowed for more interest to be deducted in 2025 rather than carried forward into future years. The Company will continue to evaluate discretionary elections available and other provisions effective in 2026.

As of December 31, 2025, the Company has recorded a valuation allowance against its net deferred tax assets in several jurisdictions, most notably in the U.S. In accordance with ASC 740, the Company considered all available evidence, both positive and negative, to determine whether it is more likely than not that the deferred tax assets will be realized. Evidence considered by the Company included (but was not limited to): an analysis of cumulative income or loss in the three year period ended December 31, 2025, permanent differences in computing taxable income such as global intangible low-taxed income (“GILTI”) and Subpart F income in the U.S., any contemplated restructuring or planning, and a scheduling of future sources of income.

As of December 31, 2025, we are in a three-year cumulative loss position in the U.S. Under applicable accounting guidance, a cumulative loss in recent years represents significant, objective evidence that is difficult to overcome. After weighing all the evidence, we determined that the weight of the objective negative evidence outweighed the positive evidence and have recorded an increase to the valuation allowance against U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets.

As of each reporting date, the Company will continue to consider existing evidence, both positive and negative, that could impact its view with regard to future realization of deferred tax assets. It is possible that the valuation allowance could change in the next 12 months.

The Company has evaluated the potential impact of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s (“OECD”) Pillar Two Global Minimum Tax framework, which introduces a global minimum tax rate of 15% for multinational enterprises. Legislation enacted in numerous countries as of December 31, 2025 had an immaterial impact on the Company’s 2025 results. Further, in January 2026, the OECD issued further administrative guidance introducing a side-by-side framework under Pillar Two that would exclude U.S.-parented groups from certain Pillar Two provisions in recognition of existing U.S. minimum tax rules. The Company will continue to monitor legislative developments but does not anticipate any material impact on its consolidated financial statements at this time.

A provision enacted as part of the 2017 Tax Cuts & Jobs Act requires companies to capitalize certain research and experimental expenditures for tax purposes in tax years beginning after December 31, 2021. As a result, as of December 31, 2025, the Company’s U.S. federal net operating losses have been fully utilized, with the exception of those subject to the annual limitation provided for in Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), which resulted in higher cash taxes and lower effective tax rate due to a deduction related to foreign-derived intangible income.

The Company’s previously undistributed earnings of foreign subsidiaries are no longer indefinitely reinvested due to current U.S. funding needs. Therefore, in 2025, an incremental deferred tax liability of $8.4 million was recorded for withholding tax and other income taxes due upon future distribution of earnings. The Company will evaluate opportunities to distribute earnings in a tax-efficient manner to minimize cash tax while achieving its liquidity and capital allocation objectives.

Our future effective tax rate may be affected by the geographic mix of earnings in countries with different statutory rates. Additionally, our future effective tax rate may be affected by our ongoing assessment of the need for a valuation allowance on our deferred tax assets or liabilities, or changes in tax laws, regulations, or accounting principles, tax planning initiatives, as well as certain discrete items.

Net Loss

As a result of the foregoing, we recorded ne t loss of $517.1 million in 2025, as compared to net loss of $0.7 million in 2024.

Adjusted EBITDA

Our Adjusted EBITDA increased $56.1 million to $93.4 million in 2025 from $37.3 million in 2024, largely driven by the Acquisition. Our Adjusted EBITDA for 2025 included net unfavorable foreign currency effects of approximately $4.4 million. See “Non-GAAP Reconciliations” for the related definitions of Adjusted EBITDA and reconciliations to our net income (loss).

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Non-GAAP Reconciliations

Because we are a global company, the comparability of our operating results is affected by foreign exchange fluctuations. We calculate certain constant currency measures and foreign currency impacts by translating the current year’s reported amounts, reflecting only our organic performance and excluding the impact of new acquisitions during the year, into comparable amounts using the prior year’s exchange rates. All constant currency financial information being presented is non-GAAP and should be used as a supplement to our reported operating results. We believe that this information is helpful to our management and investors to assess our operating performance on a comparable basis. However, these measures are not intended to replace amounts presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP and may be different from similar measures calculated by other companies.

We present Ex-TAC Gross Profit, Adjusted EBITDA, Adjusted EBITDA as a percentage of Ex-TAC Gross Profit, Free Cash Flow, and Adjusted Free Cash Flow because they are key profitability measures used by our management and our Board to understand and evaluate our operating performance and trends, develop short-term and long-term operational plans, and make strategic decisions regarding the allocation of capital. Accordingly, we believe that these measures provide information to investors and the market in understanding and evaluating our operating results in the same manner as our management and the Board.

These non-GAAP financial measures are defined and reconciled to the corresponding U.S. GAAP measures below. These non-GAAP financial measures are subject to significant limitations, including those identified below. In addition, other companies in our industry may define these measures differently, which may reduce their usefulness as comparative measures. As a result, this information should be considered as supplemental in nature and is not meant as a substitute for revenue, gross profit, net loss or net cash provided by operating activities presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

Ex-TAC Gross Profit

Ex-TAC Gross Profit is a non-GAAP financial measure. Gross profit is the most comparable U.S. GAAP measure. In calculating Ex-TAC Gross Profit, we add back other cost of revenue to gross profit. Ex-TAC Gross Profit may fluctuate in the future due to various factors, including, but not limited to, seasonality and changes in the number of media partners and advertisers, advertiser demand or user engagements.

There are limitations on the use of Ex-TAC Gross Profit in that traffic acquisition cost is a significant component of our total cost of revenue but not the only component and, by definition, Ex-TAC Gross Profit presented for any period will be higher than gross profit for that period. A potential limitation of this non-GAAP financial measure is that other companies, including companies in our industry which have a similar business, may define Ex-TAC Gross Profit differently, which may make comparisons difficult. As a result, this information should be considered as supplemental in nature and is not meant as a substitute for revenue or gross profit presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

The following table presents the reconciliation of Ex-TAC Gross Profit to gross profit, the most directly comparable U.S. GAAP measure, for the periods presented:

Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Revenue

Traffic acquisition costs

Other cost of revenue

Gross profit

Other cost of revenue

Ex-TAC Gross Profit

Adjusted EBITDA

We define Adjusted EBITDA as net income (loss) before gain on repurchase of long-term debt; interest expense; other expense (income) and interest income, net; provision (benefit) for income taxes; depreciation and amortization; stock-based compensation, and other nonrecurring income or expenses that we do not consider indicative of our core operating performance, including, but not limited to acquisition and integration costs, restructuring, and impairment charges. We present Adjusted EBITDA as a supplemental performance measure because we believe it facilitates operating performance comparisons from period to period.

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We believe that Adjusted EBITDA provides useful information to investors and others in understanding and evaluating our operating results in the same manner as our management and the Board. However, our calculation of Adjusted EBITDA is not necessarily comparable to non-GAAP information of other companies. Adjusted EBITDA should be considered as a supplemental measure and should not be considered in isolation or as a substitute for any measures of our financial performance that are calculated and reported in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

The following table presents the reconciliation of Adjusted EBITDA to net loss, t he most directly comparable U.S. GAAP measure, for the periods presented:

Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Net loss

Gain on repurchase of long-term debt

Interest expense

Other expense (income) and interest income, net

Provision for income taxes

Depreciation and amortization

Stock-based compensation

Acquisition and integration costs

Restructuring charges

Impairment of intangible assets

Goodwill impairment

Adjusted EBITDA

Net loss as % of gross profit

Adjusted EBITDA as % of Ex-TAC Gross Profit

Free Cash Flow

Free cash flow is defined as cash flow provided by operating activities, less capital expenditures and capitalized software development costs. Adjusted free cash flow is defined as free cash flow plus direct acquisition costs. Free cash flow and adjusted free cash flow are supplementary measures used by our management and the Board to evaluate our ability to generate cash and we believe it allows for a more complete analysis of our available cash flows. Free cash flow and adjusted free cash flow should be considered as supplemental measures and should not be considered in isolation or as a substitute for any measures of our financial performance that are calculated and reported in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

The following table presents the reconciliation of free cash flow to net cash provided by operating activities.

Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Net cash provided by operating activities

Purchases of property and equipment

Capitalized software development costs

Free cash flow

Direct acquisition costs

Adjusted free cash flow

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LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

We regularly evaluate the cash requirements for our operations, commitments, acquisitions, development activities and capital expenditures and manage our liquidity risk in a manner consistent with our corporate priorities. Our current investment program is focused on achieving maximum returns within our investment policy parameters, while preserving capital and maintaining sufficient liquidity.

We believe that our operating cash flow, cash and cash equivalents and investments, and available borrowing capacity, will be sufficient to fund our anticipated operating expenses and capital expenditures for at least the next 12 months and the foreseeable future. However, there are multiple factors that could impact our future liquidity, including our business performance, ability to collect payments from advertisers, having to pay media partners even if advertisers default on their payments, or other factors described under Item 1A “Risk Factors” included in this Report.

Sources of Liquidity

Our primary sources of liquidity are cash receipts from our advertisers, cash and cash equivalents, investments in marketable securities, and the available capacity under our 2025 Revolving Facility discussed below.

We have historically experienced higher cash collections during our first quarter due to seasonally strong fourth quarter sales, and, as a result, our working capital needs typically decrease during the first quarter. We generally expect these trends to continue in future periods.

As of December 31, 2025, our available liquidity was as follows:

December 31, 2025

(In thousands)

Cash and cash equivalents (1)

Short-term investments

2025 Revolving Facility (2)

Total

(1) As of December 31, 2025, approximately $25.0 million of our cash and cash equivalents was held outside of the United States by our non-U.S. subsidiaries. In 2025, we also recognized $8.4 million of deferred tax liabilities associated with the expected tax consequences of future distributions of foreign earnings, including amounts related to cash and cash equivalents held outside the United States.

(2) On February 3, 2025, we entered into the Credit Agreement, which established the Credit Facilities, including the 2025 Revolving Facility and the Bridge Facility, and our subsidiary, Midco, borrowed $625 million in aggregate principal amount of Bridge Loans under the Bridge Facility to finance the cash portion of the Acquisition consideration and the related transaction fees, costs and expenses. On February 11, 2025, the Bridge Facility, including accrued and unpaid interest thereon, was fully repaid and cancelled using proceeds from the Offering and cash on hand.

Loans under the 2025 Revolving Facility (the “Revolving Loans”) bear interest, at the Company’s option, at (x) secured overnight financing rate, subject to a “zero” floor, plus an interest rate margin of 4.25% per annum or (y) an alternate base rate plus an interest rate margin of 3.25% per annum. In addition, the 2025 Revolving Facility accrues an unused commitment fee at a rate ranging from 0.375% to 0.50%, depending on the Company’s senior secured net leverage ratio, as set forth in the Credit Agreement.

The 2025 Revolving Facility may be used for working capital and other general corporate purposes of the Company and our subsidiaries. Up to $10.0 million of the 2025 Revolving Facility is available in the form of letters of credit and up to $20.0 million of the 2025 Revolving Facility is available in the form of swingline loans. The Company may seek incremental commitments under the 2025 Revolving Facility from lenders or other financial institutions up to an aggregate principal amount equal to the greater of $62.5 million and 25% of the Company’s EBITDA (as defined in the Credit Agreement). The 2025 Revolving Facility lenders will not be under any obligation to provide any such incremental commitments, and any such increase in commitments will be subject to certain customary conditions precedent.

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Additional wholly-owned subsidiaries of the Company organized in certain jurisdictions may become borrowers under the 2025 Revolving Facility from time to time. The Credit Facilities are senior secured obligations of the Company, Midco and the Credit Facilities Guarantors (as defined in Note 9 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements), provided, that, with respect to the application of proceeds from enforcement or distressed disposals of collateral, the 2025 Revolving Facility will rank super senior to other senior secured indebtedness of the Company, Midco and the Credit Facilities Guarantors, including the Bridge Facility.

The Credit Agreement includes a customary springing financial covenant with respect to the 2025 Revolving Facility that will require the Company and our restricted subsidiaries to comply with a maximum senior secured net leverage ratio from and after the fiscal quarter ending September 30, 2025, in the event that utilization under the 2025 Revolving Facility exceeds 40%.

In connection with the entry into the Credit Agreement described above, we terminated the Second Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement, dated as of November 2, 2021, by and among the Company, Silicon Valley Bank, a division of First-Citizens Bank & Trust Company, Zemanta Holding USA Inc. and Zemanta Inc. and replaced it with the new 2025 Revolving Credit Facility.

As of December 31, 2025, the Company was in compliance with all related financial covenants and had no borrowings outstanding under the Credit Agreement. Under the terms of the Credit Agreement, because our senior secured net leverage ratio exceeded the maximum threshold as of December 31, 2025, our available borrowing capacity was limited to $40.0 million (representing 40% of the facility limit) to maintain compliance with the springing financial covenant. See Note 9 to the accompanying audited financial statements for additional information related to terms, conditions and covenants.

Material Cash Requirements

We plan to meet our liquidity needs through available cash, cash generated from our operations and our borrowing capacity. Our primary uses of liquidity are payments to our media partners, our operating expenses, capital expenditures, our long-term debt and the related interest payments. We primarily use our operating cash for payments due to media partners and vendors, as well as for personnel costs, and other employee-related expenditures. Our contracts with media partners are general ly variable based bids on impressions or guaranteed minimum paymen ts if the media partner reaches certain performance targets, and for legacy Outbrain may also include revenue share arrangements with media partners. See “Definitions of Financial and Performance Measures —Traffic Acquisition Costs.” We may also acquire or make investments in complementary companies or technologies, such as the Acquisition.

Debt Obligations

The following table presents our debt obligations as of December 31, 2025. We had no borrowings outstanding as of December 31, 2024.

December 31, 2025

(In thousands)

10% Senior Secured Notes (1)

Debt discount

Unamortized debt issuance costs

Total long-term debt

Short-term debt (€15 million) (2)

Total debt

(1) On February 11, 2025, Midco completed the Offering of the Notes at an issue price of 98.087% of the principal amount thereof in a transaction exempt from registration under the Securities Act. The Notes bear interest from February 11, 2025 at an annual rate of 10.000%, payable semi-annually on February 15 and August 15 of each year, commencing on August 15, 2025. The Notes will mature on February 15, 2030.

On June 17, 2025, we completed the repurchase of $9.3 million aggregate principal amount of the Notes for $8.0 million in cash, including accrued interest, representing a discount of approximately 17% to the principal amount of the repurchased Notes. As a result, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $1.2 million within other income in our consolidated statements of operations for the twelve months ended December 31, 2025.

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The Notes are guaranteed, jointly and severally on a secured, unsubordinated basis by the Company and each existing and future wholly-owned subsidiary of the Company that becomes a borrower, issuer or guarantor under the 2025 Revolving Facility. The Notes are also secured by first-priority lien over (i) all or substantially all assets of OT Midco, Outbrain and Teads Australia PTY Ltd, a subsidiary of Outbrain in Australia, and (ii) certain assets of some of the other direct and indirect subsidiaries of Outbrain in England and Wales, Canada, Germany, Mexico, Singapore, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan, Italy, France and Israel.

The terms of the Indenture, among other things, limit the ability of the Company and our restricted subsidiaries to (i) incur or guarantee additional indebtedness or issue preferred stock, (ii) pay dividends or make other restricted payments; (iii) make certain investments, (iv) transfer and sell assets, (v) create or incur certain liens, (vi) engage in certain transactions with affiliates and (vii) consolidate or merge or transfer all or substantially all of our assets. These covenants are subject to a number of important exceptions and qualifications. The Indenture provides for customary events of default which include, among other things (subject in certain cases to customary grace and cure periods), defaults based on (i) the failure to make payments under the Indenture when due, (ii) breach of covenants, (iii) acceleration of other material indebtedness, (iv) bankruptcy events and (v) material judgments. Generally, if an event of default occurs, the trustee or the holders of at least 30% in principal amount of the then outstanding Notes may declare all of the Notes to be due and payable.

(2) Upon the close of the Acquisition, the Company’s new French subsidiary has an overdraft short-term credit facility with HSBC (the “Overdraft Facility”), which provides Teads France with a revolving line of credit of up to €15 million at a 3-month Euro Interbank Offered Rate (“EURIBOR”), plus a margin of 1.8%, payable quarterly in arrears. This facility may be used to fund general working capital needs of Teads France. Borrowings under the Overdraft Facility are subject to a commission fee of 0.035% per annum, and a facility fee of 1.25% per annum. There are no financial covenants relating to the Overdraft Facility.

See Note 9 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information relating to our debt obligations.

Share Repurchases

On December 14, 2022, our Board approved a new stock repurchase program, authorizing us to repurchase up to $30 million of our Common Stock , with no requirement to purchase any minimum number of shares. The manner, timing, and actual number of shares repurchased under the program will depend on a variety of factors, including price, general business and market conditions, and other investment opportunities. Shares may be repurchased through privately negotiated transactions or open market purchases, including through the use of trading plans intended to qualify under Rule 10b5-1 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”). The repurchase program may be commenced, suspended, or terminated at any time at our discretion without prior notice. There were no shares repurchased under the stock repurchase program during the twelve months ended December 31, 2025. During the twelve months ended December 31, 2024, we repurchased 1,410,001 shares with a fair value of $5.8 million under the repurchase program. As of December 31, 2025, the remaining availability under our $30 million share repurchase program was $6.6 million .

In addition, we periodically withhold shares to satisfy employee tax withholding obligations arising in connection with the vesting of restricted stock units and exercise of options and warrants in accordance with the terms of our equity incentive plans and the underlying award agreements. During 2025 and 2024, we withheld 207,573 shares and 162,157 shares, respectively, with a fair value of $0.6 million and $0.8 million, respectively, to satisfy the minimum employee tax withholding obligations.

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Capital Expenditures and Capitalized Software Development Costs

Our cash flow used in investing activities included capital expenditures and capitalized software development costs. Our capital expenditures were $5.6 million in 2025 and we currently anticipate capital expenditures of between $3 million and $5 million in 2026, primarily related to servers, computing equipment, and other related infrastructure. Actual amounts may vary from these estimates.

Our capitalized software development costs were $17.1 million in 2025 and we currently expect capitalized software development costs to be between $20 million and $27 million in 2026. These investments primarily relate to our continuing development of products and technologies to drive positive results for our customers, including infrastructure to support increased AI and machine‑learning workloads, and the development of internal software designed to streamline operations and support the scaling of our centralized platform capabilities. Actual amounts may vary from these estimates.

Other Contractual Cash Obligations

The following table presents our non-cancelable purchase commitments as of December 31, 2025.

Payments Due by Period

Total

Thereafter

(In thousands)

Non-cancelable purchase commitments (1)

(1) Non-cancelable purchase commitments include data service contracts and other hosting agreements, network services, technology and IT costs, research and insight costs, and other costs to maintain our platform, and exclude individually and collectively immaterial non‑cancelable commitments. See Note 11 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information relating to non-cancelable purchase commitments.

Uncertain tax positions. We are unable to reliably estimate the timing of future payments related to uncertain tax positions; therefore, we have excluded $27.1 million related to uncertain tax positions, including accrued interest and penalties as of December 31, 2025. See Note 10 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statement the additional information.

Long-term Debt and interest expense. We have $628.2 million of senior secured notes outstanding, with no principal repayment due until February 15, 2030. The senior secured notes have future interest payments of approximately $62.8 million in each of 2026 through 2029, and $31.4 million in 2030. See Note 9 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for additional information relating to our debt obligations.

Operating lease obligation . The Company also has future operating lease obligations, which are included in the maturities of the Company’s lease liabilities under operating leases in Note 8 to our accompanying audited consolidated financial statements.

Other Commercial Commitments. In the ordinary course of business, we enter into agreements with certain media partners under which, in some cases, we agree to pay a guaranteed amount—generally tied to page views, placements, or other inventory-based metrics. These arrangements could result in losses on individual media partner accounts when guaranteed amounts exceed the revenue ultimately generated. Contract terms typically range from one to several years. See Note 11 to our accompanying audited consolidated financial statements.

Cash Flows

The following table summarizes the major components of our net cash flows for the periods presented:

Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Net cash provided by operating activities

Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities

Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities

Effect of exchange rate changes

Net increase in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash

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Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities was $7.6 million for 2025, compared to $68.6 million for 2024, representing a decrease of $61.0 million year over year. The decrease was driven primarily by changes in operating assets and liabilities, which provided $7.1 million of cash in 2025, compared with $42.3 million in 2024, resulting in an unfavorable year‑over‑year change of $35.2 million. This reduced contribution was primarily attributable to lower payables and accrued liabilities, higher cash lease payments, and a lower contribution from accounts receivable and other current assets. In addition, net income after non-cash adjustments decreased $25.8 million in 2025 compared to 2024. This decrease was in large part due to one-time expenses associated with the Acquisition and related post‑Acquisition integration activities, as well as one‑time costs associated with the Company’s two restructuring plans that took place during 2025.

Our adjusted free cash flow decreased $49.3 million to $6.0 million in 2025 from $55.3 million in 2024, primarily driven by lower operating cash flow, adjusted for payments of direct Acquisition costs, offset in part by increased capitalized software development costs. Free cash flow and adjusted free cash flow are supplemental non-GAAP financial measures. See “Non-GAAP Reconciliations” for the related definition and a reconciliation to net cash provided by operating activities.

Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities was $554.2 million for 2025, compared to net cash provided of $67.2 million for 2024 representing a year‑over‑year decrease of $621.3 million. The change was primarily driven by $598.3 million increase in cash used for the Acquisition (cash consideration paid, net of cash acquired), a $17.8 million decrease in net proceeds from sales and maturities of marketable securities under our investment program (net of purchases), and a $5.5 million increase in cash used for capital expenditures and capitalized software development costs, compared to 2024.

Financing Activities

Cash provided by financing activities increased to $585.3 million for 2025, compared with net cash used of $117.7 million for 2024, an overall increase of $703.0 million. The change was primarily driven by $625.3 million of net proceeds from debt issuances related to the Acquisition, after repayment of the Bridge Loan. In addition, financing cash flows benefited from $102.1 million in lower long‑term debt repayments and $6.0 million in reduced share repurchases during the year. These increases were partially offset by debt financing related costs payments of $31.0 million incurred for the Acquisition during 2025.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Our audited consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The preparation of these audited consolidated financial statements requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, expenses and related disclosures. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our estimates are based on historical experience and various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Our actual results could differ from these estimates.

We believe that the following policies may involve a higher degree of judgment and complexity in their application than most of our accounting policies and represent the critical accounting policies used in the preparation of our audited consolidated financial statements. Readers are encouraged to consider this summary together with our audited consolidated financial statements and the related notes, including Note 1, for a more complete understanding of the critical accounting policies discussed below.

Revenue Recognition

The determination of whether our revenue should be reported on a gross or net basis requires judgment. In most arrangements, we act as principal because we control the specified advertising inventory before it is transferred to the advertiser. This control includes the ability to monetize and direct the use of the inventory and being primarily responsible for delivery. As a result, we recognize revenue on a gross basis, with amounts payable to media partners recorded as traffic acquisition costs within cost of revenue. In arrangements where we do not control the specified inventory prior to transfer, we act as agent and recognize revenue on a net basis.

Stock-based Compensation

We measure stock-based compensation based on the grant date fair value of the awards and account for forfeitures as they occur. Determining the fair value of stock-based awards requires management to use estimates and assumptions, which involve

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uncertainties and are subjective in nature. Changes in key assumptions could impact the fair value of our stock-based compensation awards.

The fair value of our previously issued stock options was determined using the Black-Scholes option valuation model, which uses key inputs such as the expected volatility, the risk-free rate, the expected term and the expected dividend yield. The fair value of our restricted stock units (“RSUs”) is based on the fair value of the Common Stock on the date of grant. Stock-based compensation expense for options and RSUs is recognized on a straight-line basis over the respective requisite service periods.

Our performance stock units (“PSUs”) granted in 2023 have a service condition, as well as a performance condition. Such awards vest over a period of three years, subject to the employee’s continued employment and satisfaction of certain pre-established performance targets based on our financial metrics, up to a maximum of 100% of the PSUs granted. The fair value of these awards was determined based on the closing price of the Common Stock at the date of grant and expense was recognized ratably during the 3-year performance period, based on our expectation of attaining the performance targets. Cumulative expense adjustments were reflected whenever there was a change in expected achievement of the performance condition. Following completion of the performance period at December 31, 2025, these shares are scheduled to vest in the first quarter of 2026.

In June 2024 and 2025, we granted market-based PSU awards to our senior executives and other key employees, which are earned subject to achievement of specified stock price hurdles for 20 days out of a 30-trading day window during the 3-year performance period, as well as continued employment through the quarterly vesting dates over a 3-year period. The number of shares that are eligible to vest range from 0% to 100% of the number of PSUs granted based on achievement of the specified stock price hurdles, with half of our CEO’s 2024 PSU award subject to vesting based on two additional above-target stock price hurdles.

In June 2025, the Company also granted relative total shareholder return (“TSR”) PSU awards with vesting dependent on the Company’s TSR relative to the market performance of the designated peer group. The performance achievement for the relative TSR awards is measured based on the actual performance against the relative TSR goals measured over the period beginning with the date of grant through the end of each calendar year in the 3-year performance period, subject to employee’s continuing employment through the annual settlement dates of the vested awards. The number of shares that are eligible to vest range from 0% to 150% of the relative TSR awards granted, depending on the Company’s relative TSR ranking based on pre-established goals, subject to interpolation between applicable performance levels.

We estimate the fair value of PSU awards with a market condition using a Monte Carlo simulation valuation model, which uses subjective assumptions and simulates multiple stock price paths of the Common Stock to determine the fair value of market-based PSUs on the date of grant. Key assumptions in determining the fair value include expected volatility, risk free interest rate and dividend yield. Compensation expense is recognized using an accelerated attribution method over the greater of the derived service period, based on the Monte Carlo simulation, or the explicit quarterly service period. Compensation expense, net of forfeitures, is recorded regardless of whether the market condition will be ultimately satisfied.

In June 2025, the Company granted PSU awards with vesting dependent on achievement of specified financial metrics measured over the life of the award, but with the total number of potential PSUs to be earned to be determined based on the achievement of specified financial metrics measured over the first year of the performance period. The fair value of these awards was determined based on the closing price of the Common Stock at the date of grant and expense was recognized ratably during the 3-year performance period, based on our expectation of attaining the performance targets. Cumulative expense adjustments were reflected whenever there was a change in expected achievement of the performance condition.

Business Combinations

The Company accounts for business combinations using the acquisition method in accordance with ASC 805, Business Combinations. Under this method, the Company identifies the accounting acquirer and the acquisition date and recognizes the identifiable assets acquired, liabilities assumed, and any noncontrolling interests at their acquisition‑date fair values. The Company allocates the purchase price to identifiable assets acquired based on their estimated fair values at Acquisition date, which requires management to use key assumptions, including estimates of future revenue, customer attrition rates, and a discount rate.

Goodwill is measured as the excess of the consideration transferred, including the fair value of any contingent consideration, over the fair value of the identifiable net assets acquired. Identifiable intangible assets are recognized separately from goodwill

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and measured at fair value. Acquisition‑related costs are expensed as incurred.

If the accounting for a business combination is incomplete as of the reporting date, provisional amounts are recorded and adjusted during the measurement period when new information about facts and circumstances that existed as of the acquisition date becomes available. Measurement‑period adjustments are recognized in the period in which they are determined, with a corresponding adjustment to goodwill. Changes in deferred tax assets and liabilities, valuation allowances or uncertain tax positions that qualify as measurement‑period adjustments are recorded as adjustments to goodwill; all other income tax effects are recognized in income tax expense.

Income Taxes

We are subject to income taxes in the United States and numerous foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgment is required in determining our provision for income taxes and income tax assets and liabilities, including evaluating uncertainties in the application of accounting principles and complex tax laws.

We record a provision for income taxes for the anticipated tax consequences of the reported results of operations using an asset and liability approach, which requires recognition of deferred income tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of temporary differences between the financial reporting and tax bases of assets and liabilities, as well as for operating loss and tax credit carryforwards. Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are measured using the currently enacted tax rates that apply to taxable income in effect for the years in which those tax assets and liabilities are expected to be realized or settled.

We record a valuation allowance to reduce our deferred tax assets to the net amount that we believe is more likely than not to be realized. In evaluating our ability to recover our deferred tax assets within the jurisdictions in which they arise, we consider all available positive and negative evidence, including our history of pre-tax income, projected future taxable income, the scheduled reversals of deferred tax liabilities, taxable income available to carryback to prior years and our tax planning strategies.

As of December 31, 2025, we are in a three-year cumulative loss position in the U.S. Under applicable accounting guidance, a cumulative loss in recent years represents significant, objective evidence that is difficult to overcome. After weighing all the evidence, we determined that the weight of the objective negative evidence outweighed the positive evidence and have recorded an increase to the valuation allowance against U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets.

We recognize tax benefits from uncertain tax positions only if we believe that it is more likely than not that the tax position will be sustained on examination by the taxing authorities based on the technical merits of the position. Although we believe that we have adequately reserved for our uncertain tax positions, we can provide no assurance that the final tax outcome of these matters will not be materially different. We make adjustments to these reserves when facts and circumstances change, such as the closing of a tax audit or the refinement of an estimate. To the extent that the final tax outcome of these matters is different than the amounts recorded, such differences will affect the provision for income taxes in the period in which such determination is made and could have a material impact on our financial condition and operating results. The provision for income taxes includes the effects of any reserves that we believe are appropriate, as well as the related interest and penalties.

We have not made any material changes in the accounting methodology used to account for income taxes during the past three fiscal years. Changes in tax laws and rates could affect recorded deferred tax assets and liabilities in the future. Other than those potential impacts, we do not believe there is a reasonable likelihood that there will be a material change in tax-related balances .

Goodwill

Goodwill represents the excess of the purchase price over the estimated fair value of the net tangible and identifiable intangible assets acquired in business combinations. Goodwill is not amortized but is tested for impairment at least annually in the fourth quarter, or more frequently if events or changes in circumstances indicate that it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is below its carrying amount. Under ASC 350, goodwill impairment testing is performed by comparing the fair value of a reporting unit with its carrying amount and recognizing an impairment charge for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds fair value.

During the fourth quarter of 2025, a sustained decrease in our stock price resulted in a significant decline in our market capitalization, which we determined to be a triggering event indicating that a potential impairment existed. As a result, we conducted a quantitative goodwill impairment test during the fourth quarter of 2025 and estimated the fair value of our single reporting unit using a combination of an income approach (discounted cash flow model) and a market approach (guideline public company method). The discounted cash flow model requires key assumptions including projected revenue growth, and a

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discount rate reflective of market and company‑specific risk factors. Under the market approach, the Company considered valuation multiples of publicly traded companies operating in similar markets to develop a market‑participant–based indication of fair value. The Company evaluated the relevance and comparability of guideline companies and applied market‑participant considerations in assessing the market approach results.

Recently Adopted and Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

See Note 1 to the accompanying audited consolidated financial statements for recently adopted accounting standards, as well as recently issued accounting standards, which may have an impact on our financial statements upon adoption.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

We do not currently engage in off-balance sheet financing arrangements. In addition, we do not have any interest in entities referred to as variable interest entities, which includes special purpose entities and other structured finance entities.

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